20. The natives of Tasmania.

21. The Maoris of New Zealand.

22. The aborigines of New Caledonia.

23. The natives of the Marianne or Ladrone (Thieves' or Lazarus) Islands, and of other South Sea or Oceanian islands (Büchner), some of whose names, bestowed on them by navigators, bear testimony to the theftuous propensities of their inhabitants.

These are all foreign, heathen, and coloured racesextra-European, and characterised by blackish, brownish, or yellowish skins. But there are also

e. European races-even highly civilised Christian peoples, boasting incessantly of their high state of religious and moral culture, that possess in their very midst white savages, whose intellectual and moral condition is quite as instructive as, and infinitely more important than, that of remote primitive races. I need only refer to some of our own country,

to wit

24. The 'savages of North Devon,' as described by the commissioner of the Daily Telegraph.'

25. The labourers of the potteries and collieries of central England, the dog-fighters and women-kickers of Hanley and other villages of the Black Country '—in more respects than one a country well named.

26. The gutter children' of the wilds of London,' according to Hollingshead and so many others.

27. The whole of the 'criminal class' of our great cities. These fellow-countrymen of our own voluntarily place themselves—if indeed the possession of normal freedom of will be granted them-on a level with what it were a farce to call, in contrast with such men, the 'lower' animals, when they engage with bull-dogs in duels of the kind which rendered Hanley famous in 1874.

Among the psychical peculiarities of these our brother men in Christian England are

1. The absence of any religious sentiment (Elam).

2. Want of the moral sense in the whole criminal class (Despine). No appreciation of duty (Elam).

3. Low general intelligence.

4. Incapacity for intellectual or moral education. 5. Immorality of all kinds; debauchery; the social evil. 6. Depraved tastes, including especially intemperance.

7. Crime, especially theft-for instance, by the professional thieves of London, or by the frequenters of, or loafers at, the Liverpool docks.

8. Cruelty to each other, of a kind that it is a libel on other animals to designate brutality '-for instance, wifekicking by the Lancashire navvy.

It is of importance to note in how many respects the mental condition of savages corresponds with that of the child. Thus we are told that mentally the Australian aborigines are mere children,' finding amusement only in childish tricks and trifles. . . . They cannot be taught any principles. . . . They know no sentiment. . . . but only unbridled passions and the sense of their nothingness against the white races' (Madame Bingmann). Again, the East African negro' combines all the incapacity and credulity of childhood with the obstinacy and stupidity of age' (Burton).

It is a corollary from the psychical parallelism that exists between the children of civilised races with certain of the lower animals on the one hand, and savage adult man on the other, that, as Houzeau and so many other authors point out, savage man is intellectually and morally indistinguishable from many of the unfortunately so-called 'lower' animals. According to Owen, Agassiz, Huxley, and others of our most celebrated naturalists, there is no distinction between the psychical phenomena of a Bosjesman adult, or of an European infant, or of a mature cretin, and those of such animals as the chimpanzee, save in degree, if even that difference always exists. Where it does exist, it is not necessarily in favour of man.

Darwin and other writers have drawn a comparison between savage men and certain other animals-in respect, for instance, of morals-not in favour of man. Pierquin asserts the superiority of the lower animals; and no doubt his assertion is well founded as between certain intelligent, well-educated, and well-behaved dogs, horses, elephants,

chimpanzees, parrots, or other animals and whole races of savage man-that noble savage' who ran wild in woods,' and of whom we hear so much from Exeter Hall! If the student will take the trouble of comparing, one by one, the negative qualities—intellectual and moral-of savage man, as hereinabove described, with the positive qualities of certain other animals-especially the well-bred dog-the conclusion arrived at will probably be what appears to me the inevitable one-that psychical superiority frequently pertains to the 'lower' animal and not to man

CHAPTER VI.

EVOLUTION OF MIND IN THE ASCENDING ZOOLOGICAL SCALE.

I. The Invertebrata.

So little is at present known of the phenomena of mind in the lowest classes of animals, that it is impossible as yet to give any comprehensive and exact outline of the genesis and development of mind in the animal kingdom as a whole. We know a great deal about the mental or moral character of the dog, cat, horse, elephant, and other Mammalia; of the parrot, starling, domestic fowl, canary, sparrow, and other birds; of the ant, bee, wasp, and other insects; but of mind in all other classes of animals our knowledge is as yet and at present most limited and fragmentary.

What are the earliest dawnings of mind-whether they are concomitant with the earliest appearance of animal life, or whether they are to be met with in the vegetable kingdom-depends very much, if not altogether, on what are our conceptions of the constitution or essentials of mind-what are our definitions of such things or terms as sensation, sensibility, sensitiveness and sense, consciousness, will, emotion or feeling, thought and knowledge, memory, instinct, intelligence, and so forth.

If we use such terms in their widest and general acceptations, we must regard mind as beginning in the vegetable kingdom. If, on the other hand, we re-define all these, and allied or included, terms, so as to be applicable to man alone, or to man and other animals, difficulties of an insuperable kind will, I fear, be met with. Any such re-definition, moreover, will necessitate the multiplication of technical terms for the distinguishing of processes which I believe to be.

one.

dread of one enemy, and a knowledge of its operations, with ignorance, however, of the ruses of another more formidable There must be an association of ideas, though an erroneous one—an error of inference from, or interpretation of, a sensation. There is, in short, an early illustration of the fallibility of instinct.

Dr. Strethill Wright, a very competent authority, obviously ascribes intelligence to the female Spio seticornis when he says of her that she has all her senses about her.' The emotion of fear and the realisation of danger are common in crabs, lobsters, and other Crustacea. Mrs. Treat, of New Jersey, saw a Cypris, an entomostra cous crustacean, slowly walking round a bladder [of Utricularia clandestina], as if reconnoitring. Coming to the entrance of a bladder, it would sometimes pause a moment and then dash away. At other times it would come close up, and even venture part of the way into the entrance, and back out as if afraid. Another, more heedless, would open the door and walk in. But it was no sooner in than it manifested alarm-drew in its feet and antennæ and closed its shell' (Darwin).

Will is involved in the opening and shutting of the carapace of the common Cypris, while the search for food is probably common to these and other minute aquatic animals (Darwin), as it is even to the Protozoa. Bates and Gardner assert that will, in the form of voluntary determinate action, is displayed by certain Crustacea; while Houzeau assigns to them memory. There is perception of time also, as illustrated by the observance of regular feeding hours (Houzeau).

Buckland describes fear and the sense of danger in crabs in presence of the octopus in the Brighton Aquarium. Of the amphibious crabs of St. Paul's Rocks Professor Sir Wyville Thomson writes, "They were much more wary than the birds. It was by no means easy to catch them; but they kept close round the luncheon baskets in large parties, raised up on the tips of their toes, with their eyes cocked up in an attitude of the keenest observation. And whenever a morsel came within their reach there was instantly a struggle for it among the