6. Huber (François): on bees; changes in the mode of building their combs, the result of unforeseen physical obstacles; their mode of dealing with pieces of loose comb; the effects of killing the queen.

7. Latreille, Nemour, and other authors: on ants.

8. The celebrated American author Dr. Franklin: on ants with the treacle pot.

9. Pasley on scorpions; their power of self-stinging and suicide.

10. Boyer on crickets; the effects of sound.

11. Spalding: on birds; the nature of instinct in newborn chicks.

12. Houzeau: on horses and dogs; their understanding of man's words and conversation, on speaking to or addressing them as he would have spoken to or addressed children; their knowledge of time.

13. Nichols on dogs and horses; railway travel in relation to knowledge of time, the succession of events or eventuality, the calculation of the number of stoppages; their use of natural tools.

14. Menault: on dogs, testing their power of understanding man's conversation.

15. Leroy on omnibus mules, and on crows; their ideas of number and time, of duty and relaxation therefrom.

16. Burnett, Jebb, and others: on the dog, horse, and cat; their power of way-finding.

17. Fleming on the pig; the effect of white colours. 18. Ferrier: on monkeys and other animals; the localisation of the functions of the brain.

19. Romanes: on rats; use of their tails in the extraction of jelly from narrow-necked jars; on the intoxication of the Medusa.

20. Gillies on trap-door spiders in New Zealand.

21. Gudden: on various animals; effects of removal of the brain.

22. Czermak: on birds; the artificial production of hypnotism and catalepsy.

23. Flourens: on pigeons; results of removal of the cerebral hemispheres.

24. Home (Sir Everard): on the elephant and lion; effects of piano music.

25. Smellie: on the corncrake; its wariness.

26. Marville, on various animals; the power of music. 27. By many authors, on elephants, testing their ingenuity; their intellectual efforts.

28. Countless experiments on the dog-sometimes for wagers to test or show its intelligence or sensitiveness, for instance, in the use of money; or its fidelity and integrity in defence of a trust; or its power of way-finding home, when taken over unknown ground by railways or steamboats.

A perusal of the foregoing list will show in how large a proportion of cases experiment was made upon insects; a circumstance in connection with which it is desirable to remind the reader how much experimental study of animal habits may be conducted under glass in our own libraries, studios, parlours, drawing-rooms, conservatories, or even bedrooms; for I know of one instance in which an enthusiastic young zoologist conducted salmon-breeding experiments in a small tank fitted up in his own bedroom. Hence the use of ferneries, Wardian cases, or other forms of closed glass vessels, aquaria, apiaria, &c., in the study of the habits of insects of such interest as ants, bees, and wasps.

The simplest experiment may give rise to a host of suggestive reflections. I have myself frequently performed a very simple experiment-which may be repeated by anybody

on the influence of harsh or caressing tones, looks, or attitudes, on dogs and cats, in the creation of confidence or fear; in calling forth affection or repressing it; in developing individuality, and testing character and courage. I have over and over again found that an angry word or scowl-a threatening attitude-will cause some dogs and cats to flee precipitately in alarm-sometimes backwards in case of seizure by their fancied enemy-while others bravely bark or hiss their defiance. Some show unmistakably their doubt whether the experimenter is in jest or earnest. There is obviously a conflict of feelings and ideas in their minds when they find a person who is in the habit of taking no notice of them, or of throwing them a friendly word, assum

ing such forms of apparent hostility. I have often, by such means, shown the cowardice of pet dogs that were supposed by their mistresses to be very brave, because of their incessant barking at, and bold front to, strangers. On the other hand, a kindly look, a gentle tone, a friendly advance is seldom misunderstood-unless by the poor animal that has been rendered suspicious and timorous by its experience of human treachery and cruelty. In other words, there is nothing easier than for any man, woman, or child, to give to him- or her-self practical or experimental lessons in the power of human kindness to bring out in response all the better or finer features of an animal's nature, and of human cruelty to develope all the worse ones-in man's influence, therefore, for good and evil over the lower animal world.

Some of the experiments that have been made upon animals may appear to be, or are really, cruel and unnecessary -at least in their repetition-for instance, those relating to or involving

1. The action of alcohol, laughing gas, chloroform, opium, belladonna, and many poisons.

2. Mutilation or vivisection, including removal of the head or brain, or portions of either or both.

3. Self-destruction in scorpions.

4. Various kinds of deception-in the form of practical jokes or otherwise-leading sometimes to the death of the animals experimented on, including the substitution of the eggs of different species of birds, or of stones or other bodies, in the nest of a hatching mother-bird.

5. Destruction of beaver dams, birds' nests, and spiders' webs.

There are, then, certain directions in which experiment need not be extended or repeated, especially by the general public. But, on the other hand, there are many directions in which extended or renewed experiment is not only legitimate but desirable, at or in the hands of persons of average intelligence and feeling, possessed of the necessary acquirements-the power of, or facility in, observing and recording facts, fertility of resource, and an acquaintance with what has been already done on the one hand, and what remains.

to be done on the other. Spalding, for instance, points out the desirability of further experiment and observation on what he calls inherited acquisition '—a doctrine capable of experimental proof or demonstration. Houzeau, again, has suggested, as an important subject for future research-including both experiment and observation-the taming and studying, in their native countries, of the great anthropoid apes--particularly the soko, which is as yet known only to Livingstone-and other forms of the gorilla and chimpanzee. Among other legitimate and desirable, and at the same time harmless, subjects of experimental investigation by man is the effect of mirrors, pictures, and patterns on various animals.

Many experiments are performed for man by nature, by disease or injury in himself or other animals; but their value or importance is seldom evident, unless to the accomplished or experienced physiologist, pathologist, or naturalist. In the hands of such men, however, these experiments of nature's may be reproduced artificially-by imitation; so that the lessons they are calculated to teach may be duly learned and applied. In other words, the results of human experiment may be made, when necessary or desirable, to imitate those of disease or injury; or the diseases or injuries themselves may be deliberately produced.

The animals that will best repay man's observation and experiment-and that should, therefore, be selected for that purpose are those that most closely resemble him, on the one hand, in structure and functions, and, on the other, in habits -that are most intimately associated with him as companions, servants, pets, adopting, as much as may be, his own mode of life. Hence the fittest subject for man's observation and experiment is the dog-his constant friend, companion, servant, and plaything; so like him-probably by reason of the intimacy of the personal association--both in character and habits.

CHAPTER V.

THE DAWN OF MIND IN MAN: MENTAL CONDITION OF

CHILDREN AND SAVAGES.

PRIOR to a study of the genesis and evolution of mind in the young of the lower animals, it is all-important that the student should be previously well acquainted with the phenomena that constitute or characterise the dawn and gradual development of intelligence, on the one hand, in the human infant or child of civilised races, and on the other in savage man under the different degrees and conditions of his savagery.

The mental condition of the human child is of special interest, because various authors have instituted a psychical parallelism between the earlier stages of growth of the mind in man and its full development in other amimals; in other words, they hold that throughout their lives or in their mature condition the lower animals are mentally in the condition of children-that their mind in its prime is essentially childish. According to Houzeau, for instance, the mental development of the infant or child at various ages marks the levels which, in other animals, intelligence permanently attains; and long ago Locke, while quite recently Carpenter and other writers on mental physiology, have instituted similar comparisons and drawn similar inferences. But that there is only a certain amount of truth in such inferences is shown by the general results recorded in this volume, which go to prove the frequent psychical superiority of the lower animals the dog, horse, elephant, parrot, or ape-over the human child, and even over the human adult.

Whatever be the result or advantage of such a comparison or parallelism, there can be no doubt as to the propriety