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7. Miss Cobbe describes the cackling, screeching or screaming, and yelling, in delight or exultation, of a flock of geese as 'almost indistinguishable from human laughter.' It must be evident that in animals so different in structure and habits not only must the various forms of 'laughter' -so called. - differ materially in their character even as mere sounds, but must also be the vocal expressions of very different feelings. In certain birds the laughterlike sound is either the ordinary note or call, or one of the ordinary or extraordinary notes or calls, intended to intimate their presence, solicit the society of their mates, issue warning of danger, or give expression to some other want or feeling. In the hyæna, and probably other animals, the sound emitted is more of the nature of a cry of annoyance or irritation. Only in the case of the geese is there any provable association of a sense and enjoyment of fun.

On the other hand, humour may be exuberant and yet not express itself in laughter, or in voice-sounds of any kind. The dog, for instance, shows his appreciation of fun in his sparkling, merry eye, in his facial features as a whole, in his rolling over and over, running about wildly or round and round, in his whole aspect and demeanour, look. and manner.

Just as it has been shown that various animals possess the physical apparatus necessary for laughter-while they are actuated by those feelings or ideas that in man give rise to it so it can be equally shown that certain animals are not only gifted with the physical apparatus necessary for the production and effusion of tears, and for the actions or phenomena of weeping and sobbing, but also with the emotions or conceptions that in man give rise to tears and weeping.

What have been described as true tears are shed— especially under the emotion of grief- by a considerable number and variety of animals, including the dog, horse, elephant, bear, rat, donkey, mule, various deer, soko, chimpanzee, mandrill, orang, titi or other monkeys or apes, cattle, camel, giraffe; while there are other animals-such as the parrot (Watson)-in which, though tears are not

specified, the action of sobbing or weeping is nevertheless represented as occurring. Whatever may be the case in man, it would appear that in other animals the phenomena of weeping or sobbing do not necessarily involve the presence of tears.

Whether accompanied or unaccompanied by demonstrable tears, the action of weeping occurs most frequently, in other animals as in man, under the powerful influence of grief or sorrow of all kinds, especially that resulting from or connected with bereavement-of young, mates, companions, or human masters. But weeping is the fruit also of other emotions, some of them of a curious or a complex character. Thus I have notes of its occurrence from

1. Mere emotionalness-as in certain monkeys, from being pitied by man (Darwin and Rengger).

2. Despair-as in the stag at bay (Low) or the caged rat (Reedy).

3. Fright, terror, or fear-in the titi or other monkeys (Humboldt, Cassell).

4. Captivity and its resultant melancholy-in the Indian and Cingalese elephant (Darwin and Tennent), and in monkeys (Darwin).

5. Joy.

6. Bodily pain, fatigue, or want-such as thirst.

7. Sense of ill-usage, including wrong or degradation. 8. Fond or sad memories.

9. Sympathy.

10. Disappointment or chagrin-as in monkeys (Rengger), and elephants (Houzeau).

11. Sadness and regret.

12. Old age or the dying state.

13. Pettishness at non-compliance with whims-as in the young soko (Livingstone) and orang (Yvan).

14. Dread of punishment-in chimpanzees or other Quadrumana trained to man's service.

Weeping, like laughter, then, arises from emotions and ideas of the most opposite kind, as well as from bodily sufferings or impressions-all just as in man.

It is not enough, however, merely to assert that various

animals shed tears under certain mental influences; it is desirable, if not necessary, to give illustrations of the fact, with the names of the authorities who have observed it.

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Mrs. Burton, speaking of thirsty horses in the Syrian Desert, says, 'I have seen the tears roll down their cheeks with thirst.' Of a mule crippled by a two-inch nail in its foot, 'His face was the picture of pain and despair. Tears streamed out of his eyes.' And, again, of a camel, Tears streamed from the eyes.' Cows 'weep often when in sorrow,' says another authoress-Mrs. Mackellar. She mentions one sold by its mistress, who had brought it up, that would stand lowing pitifully all day long. . . . with the tears streaming down her face.' A young soko, Livingstone tells us, if not taken up in the arms like child, when it desired and appealed to be so carried, engaged in the most bitter human-like weeping.'

Chimpanzees, in Sierra Leone, that have been trained to carry water-jugs for man, weep bitterly' when they let them fall and see them in pieces at their feet (Wonders of Nature and Art'). Dr. Boerlage shot a female (mother) ape in Java, that fell mortally wounded from a tree, 'tightly clasping a young one in her arms, and she died weeping' (Büchner).

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A giraffe, wounded by a rifle shot, was also found to have tears trickling from the lashes of his dark, humid eyes' (Sir Wm. Harris). Some old rats, finding a young one dead by drowning, 'wiped the tears from their eyes with their fore-paws' ('Animal World'). Gordon Cumming describes large tears as trickling from the eyes of a dying elephant.

Steller, the companion of Behring's second voyage of discovery, asserts that the mother sea-bear of Kamtschatka 'sheds tears;' while the male parent, when he sees that his young is irrevocably lost. . . . like the mother, begins to cry so bitterly that the tears trickle down upon his breast' (Hartwig). Dr. Yvan mentions an orang that wept when a mango was taken from him, just as a child would have

done.

In certain cases there is sobbing without tears, or the

kind of causes as choking cries,' as

utterance, unaccompanied by tears, of cries, groans, or moans, though arising from the same weeping. Tennent describes sobs and well as tears, in the captured elephant; while Houzeau speaks of a young one 'crying' on the death of its mother. Buckland alludes to sobs in the dog.

Weeping, like laughter, is sometimes very humanlike in its character. Thus Bontius describes the weeping of an orang as resembling that of a woman.

Not only, however, do certain animals themselves shed tears, but the dog at least frequently understands the significance of those of man. That is to say, it connects them with sorrow or suffering, and this connection leads it to offer fond expressions of condolence to make various attempts at consolation.

It only remains to note that, as in man, the same cause— the same emotion-may give rise equally to laughter and tears in the same or different animals-at the same or different times, according to their temperaments or idiosyncrasies. Thus joy, especially when sudden and excessive, produces sometimes laughter, sometimes tears, sometimes neither, just as in man (Darwin).

CHAPTER XVI.

EXPRESSIVENESS OF ANIMAL LANGUAGE.

LANGUAGE of whatever form--among the lower animals is used voluntarily and deliberately, or involuntarily, mainly for the following purposes :—

1. To call each other or man, either particular individuals or the various members of a family, or of a flock or herd. These calls,' which are in an infinite variety of forms, include

a. Sexual calls-for suitors or mates in the season of sexual love, for the purposes of pairing.

b. Maternal and parental calls to the young, having reference chiefly to two great objects-food-supply and protection from danger.

c. Assembly calls-to rally or collect, or keep together, the scattering or scattered members of a flock or herd—in war, the march, or migration.

d. Summonses for aid.

2. To make intimations or announcements of-

a. Their intentions, purposes, plans-including their decisions.

b. Their wants of all kinds-including their urgency. c. Information or intelligence of various kinds-relating, for instance, to food, booty, or danger.

3. To hold consultations-deliberative councils, discussions, or debates on important questions of the day'-concerning, for instance, the necessity for war, the means of defence, the sites of emigration-fields, or the time for migration.

4. To conduct public trials, apparently by jury, including advocacy, accusation, conviction, judgment, and punishment.

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