CHAPTER XIV.

NON-VOCAL LANGUAGE.

THE principal forms of non-vocal language-the chief modes of expression of thought or feeling, other than those which consist in the emission of sounds of various kinds-are the following:

1. Actions-movement or motion-including gesture and gesticulation, attitude and posture, gait, carriage, mien, manner, deportment or demeanour, conduct or behaviour. a. General, involving the whole or greater part of the body: e.g.

1. Capers or antics, gambols, frolic, frisking.

E.g. in young animals generally, such as the lamb, puppy, and kitten; but also in many adult birds in the season of love; in the adult rabbit and dog, ape and chimpanzee. 2. Skipping, leaping or jumping, bounding, scampering, racing or running, coursing, charging or careering.

E.g. in the dog, horse, and cattle.

3. Dancing, hopping, prancing, plunging, flinging, rearing.

E.g. in the horse, hare, mongoose, certain monkeys, dog, and goat.

4. Prostration, crouching, grovelling, cowering, crawling, cringing, fawning.

E.g. in the dog, cat, and mouse.

5. Self-concealment or hiding, flight, sneaking,
skulking, slinking, shirking, or shrinking.
E.g. in the dog, cat, and orang.

6. Writhing or wriggling.
E.g. from pain.

7. Rubbing body against the bodies of other animals or against hard inert substances.

E.g. in the elephant, horse, dog, cat, cattle, sheep, ape, and parrot.

8. Strutting, including swaggering.

E.g. in the turkey and peacock, Cupid and
Argus pheasants, and gander.

9. Immobility, from refusal or inability to move.
E.g. in the horse and ass.

10. Gyration-whirling round and round in a circle.
E.g. in the dog and horse.

11. Tumbling, revolution, rolling over and over in the air or on the ground.

E.g. in certain pigeons (such as the tumbler), certain dogs, and the orang.

12. Salaaming and bowing.

E.g. in elephants and certain monkeys.

13. General restlessness, muscular and nervous. b. Special-of particular parts or members of the body. 1. Mouth, lips, teeth, and tongue, beaks or bills. a. Biting, including worrying, tearing, gnawing, gnashing.

E.g. in the dog, horse, camel, guanaco, monkey, ass, suricate, and Magellan fox.

b. Snapping.

E.g. in the dog, horse, wolf, dove, and other birds.

c. Spitting.

E.g. in the camel, vicuna, guanaco, cat, certain monkeys, and scorpions.

d. Licking.

E.g. in the dog, cat, wolf, pig, rabbit,
Guinea-pig, and certain bees.

e. Pouting.

E.g. in certain apes and monkeys. 2. Legs and arms, paws, heels, hoofs, claws.

a. Touching or tapping-
1. With paws.

E.g. in the cat.

2. With antennæ or pincers.

E.g. in ants, common and white.

b. Embrace, caress, fondling, hugging.

E.g. in the siamang, orang, lori, certain apes, dog, and elephant.

c. Striking blows, beating, pushing, jogging. E.g. in the horse, orang, capybara.

d. Scratching.

E.g. in the cat and dog.

e. Kicking and pawing.

E.g. in the horse and ass.

f. Hand-wringing, squeezing, or shaking.
E.g. in the lori, certain monkeys, and
anthropoid apes.

3. Head and its appendages, including horns.
a. Butting and goring.

E.g. in cattle, deer, sheep, goats, capybara.

b. Head-shaking, tossing, rubbing.

E.g. in certain apes, bull, horse, dog, and cat.

4. Nose and nostrils.

a. Sniffing.

E.g. in the dog, horse, and various other
Ruminants.

b. Nose-rubbing.

E.g. in the horse.

5. Ear movements, including erection, depression, and retraction.

E.g. in the dog and horse.

6. Wing movements, including expansion, flapping, and fluttering. E.g. in birds.

7. Tail movements, including erection, expansion, vibration (wagging and lashing).

E.g. in the wolf, goat, ram, stag, lion,

dog, cat, horse, ox, and other Ruminants; sparrows and various other birds.

2. Erection, inflation, expansion, or elevation, with their opposite condition of depression, of various dermal appendages, including especially

a. Hair, bristles, and quills.

E.g. in the lion, hog or boar, dog and cat, certain caterpillars, porcupine, and hedgehog.

b. Feathers, including ruffs.

E.g. in ruffling or other displays of plumage in birds.

c. Spurs, combs, wattles, crests, hoods, frills of the head, neck, or throat.

E.g. in the cockatoo, frill lizard, bladdernose seal, rook.

d. Head, neck, throat, or breast puffing, swelling dilatation, or distension.

E.g. in certain serpents and lizards, such as

the Egyptian cobra and the anobis, the pouter and other pigeons.

3. Coloration and decoloration of the skin of the face or throat, or their appendages-such as wattles, combs, feathers, bristles, or hair-including—

a. Hyperæmia-increase of blood-colour by congestion or determination of blood, leading to flushing, blushing, and reddening.

E.g. in the mandrill and other baboons, dog, turkey cock (wattle).

b. Anaemia-decrease of blood-colour from sudden local removal of blood-supply, leading to pallor or colour-loss.

E.g. in the stickleback.

c. Other colour-change.

E.g. in the chameleon, anobis, and other lizards.

4. Cutaneous or other exudations, such as sweat, in

cluding the emission of coloured fluids.

5. Emission of smells or odours, mostly pungent and disagreeable.

6. Emission of light, including so-called 'phosphorescence.'

E.g. in the glowworm.

7. Physiognomy-facial expression, the play of feature, peculiarities of countenance-including especially the look, stare, or gaze of the eye, constituting what has been called eye language; and also including

a. Grimace.

E.g. in apes and baboons.

b. Vacancy of feature, usually indicative of disease. Of all the non-vocal forms of animal language the most important to the student of comparative psychology is probably the last. But there are great difficulties in the study of feature-changes in the lower animals, and in their comparison with those occurring in man, the principal being the fact that the face in other animals is so frequently covered with hair, feathers, or other cutaneous adjuncts or appendages, that prevent our seeing the play of the facial muscles. The physiognomy of the lower animals can, therefore, be best or only studied in those that are bare-faced, the number of whom is extremely limited. There are, however, a few literally or comparatively bare-faced monkeys, apes, or baboons-such as the mandrill-dogs, and other animals, in which even the phenomenon of blushing, or flushing of the skin, and its converse can be observed.

Two points are especially noteworthy in our consideration of facial expression in the lower animals

1. Its eloquence-the number of mental states of which it is the correlative—and—

2. Its wonderful variety or variability, not only in different genera and species, or in different individuals of the same species, but even in the same individual at different times or under different circumstances.

In the dog and horse especially the whole phenomena of feature-change-of the varying states of the countenancein particular of the look and eye-as the signs of feeling may be studied with equal advantage and interest. The