society or presence of man, or of particular men-that do not represent their true feelings or thoughts, but are the result of conventionality and constraint. It is quite common, again, for the guilty but quick-witted dog to assume the aspect of ignorance or innocence, and it may require long and close watching to detect and only when it believes itself unwatched by man-the little signs by which it betrays itself -the furtive look, the slinking gait, the avoidance of man.

And there are other animals quite as capable as man is of assuming, for the purposes of deceit, such looks or mien as will serve to throw man himself, or their animal enemies or prey, off their guard.

While, as a rule, and especially in young animals, there is an obvious outward demonstration or demonstrativeness of feeling; and while also there are cases-mostly in mature and experienced animals-in which there is, for some specific purpose, a successful repression of emotion, there are certain other cases in which there is simply, for various reasons, a non-expression of wants, desires, or ideas. Such animals do not give natural vent to their feelings; they are not naturally demonstrative; they are what in man would be called cold and self-contained, stolid, indifferent, impassive. This condition, however, when it exists, is generally the fruit of mental defect or disorder; in other words, it is morbid in its character.

Such animals find their human analogues in many savage races, and in many individuals among civilised peoples.

Thus Wallace says, 'In character the Malay is impassive. . . . He is not demonstrative. His feelings of surprise, admiration, or fear are never openly manifested, and are probably not strongly felt.'

Among the most interesting features of animal language are the fact that and the means by which such animals as the dog make themselves intelligible to man-for instance, by

1. Attracting his attention to themselves, their young, or other animals; to things, persons, places, or events.

2. Making reports to him of the occurrence of events, involving the communication of information or intelligence. 3. Issuing invitations to him to go to a given place.

4. Preferring requests to him to do some desired thing.

That all this is frequently done is illustrated by the dog's behaviour when its master is murdered or meets with some accident. It not only instantly communicates intelligence of the event in the proper quarter, but it solicits immediate aid-spares no effort in obtaining it, and will take no denial. It does all this inter alia by the

1. Anxiety, earnestness, or seriousness, not only of its look, but of its whole demeanour.

2. Persistency or pertinacity of its barking or whining, as well as its unusual character or its occurrence at unusual times and in unusual places.

3. Unusual character of its other voice-sounds, such as

moans.

4. Restlessless or eccentricity of its movements, unusual excitement, agitation, or action, including incessant and wild leaping or running round or about a room or place, or round a person-apparently without immediate aim, but obviously not in or from joy.

5. Catching, the dress of a master or mistress, and peremptorily dragging, pulling, or tugging him or her in a particular direction thereby.

6. Scampering off in a fixed direction when it finds itself likely to be followed by those whose aid it has solicited.

7. Going in front when it finds itself so followedleading or showing the way to a given locality.

8. Looking behind, however, now and again, to make sure that it is being duly followed, and by the proper parties.

9. Stopping at a given spot, and pointing, scratching, tearing, or barking, as circumstances may require.

10. Frequency of visits-unaccompanied to the same spot.

By some such means-by an intelligent dog-many a murder has been discovered, many a tipsy or wounded master rescued, many lost articles recovered. Again, a dog guarding a sleeping child summons the absent nurse, on the infant's awaking, by searching for and discovering her in some other apartment, pulling at her dress, and so drawing her towards the nursery-all just as a child itself would do under similar circumstances.

CHAPTER XIII.

VOCAL LANGUAGE.

THE principal forms of vocal language among the lower animals the chief voice-sounds by which they exhibit or give expression to their various feelings or emotions, ideas or thoughts, wants or wishes-are the following:

:

1. Articulate speech, consisting mainly of successful imitation of man's words and phrases—for instance, in the parrot, parroquet, starling, jackdaw, grakle, raven, crow, jay, magpie, and blackbird.

This subject includes

a. The distinct utterance of words and phrases, so as to deceive man himself, as well as certain other animals that are accustomed to, and that understand, man's words and phrases-e.g. the dog and the horse.

b. The repetition of words and sentences, without necessarily knowing their meaning-otherwise mere mechanical repetition by rote, including recitation, quotation, declamation, and song-singing.

c. The appropriate use of words and sentences, involving the power of composition and the association of ideas with words, including the association of the same kind of ideas that man attaches to the same kind of words and phrases. Illustrations are to be found in the form of—

1. Pertinent remark or comment.

2. Question and reply.

3. The expression of physical wants.

4. Salutation or address, including the use of the proper names of persons.

5. Giving orders.

6. Correction of error.

7. Satire.

8. Rebuke.

9. Use of oaths or vituperation.

d. The consequent power of conversation with man.

e. The acquisition and use of various of the languages of man, including, unfortunately, slang and oaths in more than one European language.

2. Inarticulate cries of different kinds, comparable to the interjectional exclamations of man, commonest in young animals of the most diverse genera and species, such as the dog, elephant, camel, seal, bear, mule, ox, hyæna, red squirrel, hedgehog, capybara, gorilla, siamang, orang, chimpanzee and certain apes and monkeys, swan, parrot, woodpecker, waterfowl, common fowl, owl, rook, turkey, swallow, and other birds.

This category may be held to include

a. Screams-for instance, in animals so different as the dog, camel, elephant, orang and certain monkeys, goose, flamingo, fish hawk, North American kingfisher, swallow, hen turkey, crow, and other birds.

b. Shrieks-in the dog, some apes, and swallow.

c. Yells-in the soko, dog, and pig.

d. Moans or groans, shouts, and many other voice-sounds that need not here be specified.

The cries of animals are of special interest in at least two respects, viz.

1. Their frequently human-childlike or infantile character; and

2. The fact that they constitute one of the main primary elements out of which all human-spoken language has grown or been constructed (Blackie).

The war-cry of the gorilla is said to be humanlike in its tone or general character, resembling that of savage man (Houzeau). The bear whelp cries like a child when hungry. The wail of the motherless 'cat' (or babe) seal is very like that of a human infant.' It is described as 'crying piteously' for its slaughtered mother (Buckland). Mary Howitt describes the cries of a woodpecker as resem

bling those of a child. Milne Edwards points out that the cry of agony or distress occurs equally in the child and animal. The female jaco monkey cries when tired, just as the child does. The young siamang utters pettish cries and offers resistance while being washed by its mother, just as the human child does (Cassell). Apes have cries and the chimpanzee shouts of pleasure in their amusements.

Wallace says of a young female orang that unsavoury food caused it to scream and to stamp with its feet, just like a child in a passion. It was its usual tactic to scream if it thought itself neglected and wished to attract attention. . . . gradually ceasing to scream when no notice was taken; but it immediately began again if it heard anyone's footstep.' Of another orang—a male-Dr. Yvan tells us that his master having taken away from him a mango fruit, he set up a peevish howling, like a vexed child. As this was not successful, he threw himself flat on his belly, beat the ground with his fist, screamed, wept, and howled. . . . When at last the fruit was given back to him he threw it at his master's head.'

Of all the varied forms of vocal expression there is none of greater interest to the student of comparative psychology than that of articulate speech-the power of speaking or talking-possessed by such birds as the parrot.

That its enunciation of words and phrases picked up by imitation from man, either spontaneously or by means of his efforts at the bird's linguistic education, is both correct and clear there can be no doubt. It is proved by the frequency with which man allows himself to be misled by the talk of the parrot, fancying he is listening to some fellow-man, and by the perhaps even greater frequency with which such animals as the dog and horse, accustomed to obey man's words and sentences of command, commit the error of obeying instead the waggish, counterfeit orders of a parrot. Of the Truefitt parrot, and its mimicry or imitation of the manner of and the words and phrases of command used by a volunteer drill sergeant, a captain of volunteers asserted that he had never heard a drill sergeant whose articulation was to be compared with that of the parrot.' Nor is this