is direct and voluntary (Houzeau). It involves method and design-for instance, in the cat, that encourages the play of her kittens and that herself plays with them, such play being directly and obviously conducive to the development of bodily agility. In the tuition of the young, parents and elders apply in various ways their own experience. They employ equally commendation or reward and punishment or rebuke.

Among ants the masters teach or train their slaves in or by fear, though the result is good, as these slaves become true servants (Figuier). Pigeons are taught to fly by the medium of hunger, of physical need or necessity, artificially or intentionally created by the parent bird withholding food -just as man does in training his courier birds (Herbert).

In certain cases there is a special education of certain individuals, as of the queen by hive bees (Kirby and Spence); there is a distinctively physical training given to the young queens by bee-nurses (Figuier).

Certain birds and other animals set forth their own example to their young, with the evident object of its imitation by them; and there can be no doubt that it is by imitation that the acquisition of ability-physical and mental-takes place, in the first instance, in the young of all the higher animals, as is the case also in the human child.

On the part of the pupil, as has been partly pointed out in the chapter on 'Capacity for Education,' various mental qualities are implied. There must be, in the first place, a certain receptivity-a capacity for learning, as well as a willingness to learn. Then there is the powerful faculty of imitation, whereby young animals learn to do what they see done by their parents or seniors. Next there is natural curiosity or inquisitiveness, a desire to know the real nature of things-perhaps, in the first place, in reference simply to whether they are safe or dangerous.

This curiosity-thirst for knowledge-in many young animals leads to the development of observation, attention, investigation, and even experiment. In all kinds of instruction memory is of quite as great importance as in man. In certain animals there is not only anxiety to learn, but diligence

in study; they make efforts to excel, display an honourable emulation or rivalry- for instance, monkeys (Rengger). Moreover, there is a recognition of their parents or elders as their mentors (Houzeau)—a recognition that implies or includes obedience and respect.

Much more general, or at least more obvious, than the teaching of parents or elders is the teaching of experience. Young, intelligent animals rapidly acquire experience and profit by it, so that the behaviour of the old or experienced and the young or inexperienced animal, under the same. circumstances, differs in a very marked way. Thus the different results of experience and inexperience are sometimes well seen in the same troop of military horses-in the different behaviour of old and young animals in stampedes or panics. Inexperience of man as an enemy is obvious in certain unsophisticated wild animals. Young harriers hunt without reflection, making no allowance for the doubling of the hare, while the old ones leave the fatigues of the chase to the young, themselves watching and waiting for their easier and proper opportunity (Houzeau). Experience teaches, in the first place, what to trust or to fear, what to eat, drink, or avoid, or what gives bodily pain. Thus a London railway dog was deterred, by its having been once burned by a red-hot cinder from the locomotive furnace, from travelling a second time by the engine or tender; it speedily learned to avoid what had produced danger and pain. Experience, too, enables hunted animals to avoid

snares.

Animals apply their acquired experience to their conduct in new cases or circumstances. They profit by failure or non-success, which prompts them to make further and successful efforts. Thus the dog, in swimming, learns to make allowance for tides, eddies, and currents. Many animals profit by the very accidents that befall them. The bee does this after an attack on its nest by the death's-head moth; it accepts the incident as a warning of what is likely to happen again, and it forthwith makes provision for the contingency (Kirby and Spence). Bees also not only steady falling combs, but they learn this lesson from their totter

ing condition-to strengthen other weak combs, so as to prevent a similar condition in them. They discover the cause of the fall in one case and the means of preventing a similar accident in other cases.

The lessons of experience have to be learned gradually or suddenly frequently at great cost to the individual, its family, or race.

Just as happens in man, there are individuals among the lower animals so peculiarly constituted mentally that they do not gain knowledge from experience. This, however, is exceptional, and can usually at least be attributed to the presence of mental defect or disorder. The subject is fully discussed in the chapters on Mental Defect and Derangement,' on 'Stupidity,' and on 'Error.'

It is of interest to bear in mind that experience is of two kinds

1. That which is acquired by the individual; and

2. That which has been accumulated by generations of individuals, and has been transmitted by or from ancestry (Lewes); while

3. Of the two, ancestral, inherited experience is in certain respects the more important (Spalding).

Self-education, tuition, or improvement occurs in other animals, under the same circumstances as in man, involving the same mental qualities, developed or displayed in the same way. Various birds learn for themselves the songs or notes of other genera or species, and they have concerts among themselves (Darwin); at least they do so in confinement (Baird)—though it does not appear how captivity operatespossibly simply because then only is the acquisition noted or notable by man. Self-education includes, for instance, the learning of lessons by practice. Various song birds and other animals learn their lessons as children do. This takes place in the mocking bird (Percy Anecdotes') and jay (Jesse). Elephants have their rehearsals by themselves, as was long ago pointed out by Pliny, and has been confirmed in modern times by Buckland; they practise for their dancing feats (Pliny). The horse too practises its dancing lessons. There is a regular practising by the young of manoeuvres

prior to the migration of certain birds. The nightingale 'records' or practises the notes of other species.

'Practice makes perfection,' or at least tends towards it, in other animals as in man; steadiness in lesson-learning leads sooner or later to excellence. Practice has the same kind of effect in developing and improving the various mental faculties of other animals as in man. Its beneficial results are perhaps better seen in the efforts of song than in the arts of construction.

This learning of lessons involves the perception and correction of mistakes, and progress or improvement in song, flight, nest-building, and other accomplishments. It implies also what in man is called study, which is exhibited in various ways and degrees. Birds study, for instance, how best to display their own physical beauty (Darwin).

Self-tuition includes systematic muscular exercise—regular gymnastic exercises-in order to due bodily culture, even in insects-e.g. among young ants. The play of all young animals is to be regarded as an important part of physical education, as a means of imparting or developing that bodily agility which is so necessary in the struggle for life. Hence their mimic fights and races, their gambols, games, sports, pastimes of all kinds, have a high educational value, as well as an important relation to health, mental and bodily.

LANGUAGE.

CHAPTER XI.

LANGUAGE IN LOWER MAN.

PRESUMPTUOUS man never made a graver mistake than when he distinctively defined himself as differing from all other animals in the possession of language. He has fallen into error by ignorance of what language is—any manner of expressing thought,' and, it may be added of expressing feeling, idea, wish, or intention. This is the comprehensive sense of the term-the sense in which it is used in this volume. It is the definition of the word according to the most recent English dictionaries.

Speech, articulate language, written and printed language, are mere forms of language, the forms with which civilised nations are no doubt most familiar; but they are neither the most common nor the most important forms of general language, which includes many kinds of what have been variously denominated gesture, sign, pantomimic or mimic, sound, look, and eye language. In other words, even in man the outward, visible, or audible exponents of feeling and thought are both numerous and varied-constituting a general language of expression.

Those forms of physical expression which are not vocalfor instance, the language of the look or eye-are frequently incomparably more powerful in their influence-more elo