6. Perseverance, like patience, may have to be infinite. 7. Persuasiveness-the use of encouragement or coaxing. These must form the basis of the best systems of education, whether of other animals or of the human child. Berkeley advocates in the training of sporting dogs a combination of kindness, firmness, and persuasion.

On the part of the pupils there must be a basis of receptivity, aptitude, or capacity, the power of application, involving sufficient force of will; and there should also be willingness to learn, and effort in learning. It is the combination of these good qualities that leads so many intelligent animals—the elephant, dog, parrot-to practise their lessons, to make effort, and persistent effort, at self-improvement.

Among the conditions favourable to systematic education by man are time, the absence of distraction, and the incessant repetition of his lessons. There is an obvious necessity for time in the acquisition of knowledge or skill. Results cannot be achieved at once; they may be rapid in their growth in some cases, but more commonly they are gradual, even slow, so that it is not till an animal has arrived at maturity, or even old age, that it has duly learned, and learned to profit by, the lessons either of man or of experience. Many animals have to serve an apprenticeship in the detection of danger, and the means of avoiding or escaping it in constructive and defensive operations.

Time is obviously requisite for the learning of lessons, in successive series, as requisite as in the case of the human child. Much depends, as regards the duration of training, on the character of the teacher, on the one hand, and of the pupil on the other, as well as on the nature of the accomplishment to be acquired the lessons to be learned. Thus while it may reasonably be expected that all animals of average capacity will more or less speedily learn to fly or run, to catch prey, to kill and eat it, to select and collect food, it must take a much longer period to teach man's words or songs, to enable them to find their way home from great distances, to act in concert, to play parts, to subdue or control their natural strong passions or propensities.

The work of tuition and of learning implies time and trouble on the parts both of pupil and teacher. There must

be no mental distraction on the pupil's part; he must give his attention wholly to his lessons for the moment. In particular there must be no disturbing sensorial impressions, especially of vision or hearing; all sights and sounds, save those with which it is desired to impress the pupil, must for the time be rigidly excluded. And this is so well known to trainers, for instance, of song birds, that they resort sometimes to cruel methods of securing the end desired. Hence the practice of artificially blinding song birds. Hence the fact that in confinement song birds learn singing better than they do at liberty. There are, therefore, favourable and unfavourable times and places, circumstances or conditions, for successful instruction.

The use and disuse of faculties, as of organs, produce the same results as in man, of increased or diminished power. Hence the advantage and importance of continual exercise of certain acquired aptitudes or faculties, an importance or necessity recognised sometimes by the animals themselves in their aiming at perfection or excellence-for instance, in song. Sporting dogs forget their special accomplishments from want of practice (Walsh).

Discrimination must be shown in adapting the form of training or teaching to the nature of the animal to be taught. It is obvious that a perfectly wild animal requires more care and trouble than the offspring of a domesticated one, which has the advantage of certain inherited aptitudes. And the same comparative difficulty exists in the case of mature or elderly animals and those that are naturally stupid or unintelligent.

The influence of example and of imitation is illustrated in all forms of upbringing of the lower animals, as of man himself. Of him it was long ago truly said—

Exemplo plusquam ratione vivimus.

Hence the importance of placing before the young animal a proper model, and hence also the importance of man's own behaviour before it being guarded and becoming.

It is always important that there should be a mutual understanding between teacher and pupil, who frequently become

master and servant. This is so obviously an advantage in the case of the sportsman and his dogs that it is desirable their lessons should be learned together (Walsh); there should be a conjoint education, so that the servant may as thoroughly understand the capabilities of his master as the latter those of his servant. Hence the advantage of the training by their owners themselves of sporting dogs. There are some excellent well-bred sporting dogs, as there are horses, that only work properly under or with a master, whom they can respect, in whom they have confidence-confidence not in his kindness, but in his skill as a sportsman or rider. Nor must it be lost sight of that there is frequent congeniality of pursuit; the horse or dog may become as fond. of the race or chase as the huntsman; and wherever this common love or interest in the work exists, the work itself, whatever it be, is likely to be thoroughly well done, equally by man, horse, and dog. Mutual confidence and affection beget improvement of the moral character, as well as of certain mental aptitudes, of both master and animal companion or servant, a circumstance frequently observed in the relation of man to his horse or dog.

The lessons of life learned by the lower animals may be either

1. Those taught by experience, including need or necessity, frequently dearly bought.

2. Those taught by their parents, elders, seniors, or companions, and insisted upon by penalties.

3. Those taught by man, inculcated sometimes systematically in regular schools.

4. Those self-imposed, in the form of lesson practising or learning.

Obviously, then, such lessons may be either deliberately taught and consciously acquired, or they may be learned unconsciously, as in the case frequently of the influence of example and imitation. There is an education of this kind-one not contemplated by either teacher or pupil, both of whom are unconscious agents in the result-in the acquisition by foster young of the habits of foster parents. Thus the dog acquires sometimes catlike habits from asso

ciation, from its earliest years, with a cat; it learns, for instance, to respect the cleanliness of the house, and is itself cleanly.

Equally in other animals as in man, education developes or determines new tastes, feelings, passions, ideas, aptitudes, habits.

It is important to bear in mind that the children of certain savage races of man receive no direct instruction from their parents or elders. Imitation, necessity, experience, practice, lead to a more or less rapid acquisition in them, as in so many other animals, at once of physical and mental dexterity.

It is well to bear in mind also that animals possess both natural and artificial arts or aptitudes. Thus in our pet song-birds singing is an artificial art, developed by man by culture, while dancing in certain birds is a natural and spontaneous effort (Houzeau). Equitation in the ape is also an artificial art, but it is usually or frequently self-acquired, not taught by man (Houzeau). So that 'artificial' is not necessarily synonymous with taught by man.'

CHAPTER VIII.

SELF-EDUCATION: THE ACQUISITION OF KNOWLEDGE BY INVESTIGATION.

INVESTIGATION on the part of the lower animals, usually in order to the acquisition, extension, or improvement of knowledge, includes the following features of interest in their mental character-the following aptitudes or conditions:

1. The faculty of observation: its nicety, minuteness, accuracy, acuteness, delicacy, closeness or keenness, including the comparison of resemblances and differences.

2. The power of attention, and of concentration and continuance thereof.

3. The practice of examination or inspection of unfamiliar objects, including

a. Reconnoitring and surveying.

b. Search and exploration.

c. Deliberate study.

4. Curiosity or inquisitiveness; associated with a

5. Love of knowledge, especially of such a kind as will bear on the physical requirements, comforts, or safety of the animal itself.

6. The application of experimental tests, with

7. Repetition and variation of effort therein.

8. The power of memory.

9. The influence of novelty of scene, sight, sound, or other external conditions.

10. The drawing of inferences or conclusions from the results of observation and experiment.

11. Due reflection and reasoning on the bearings of such results; and