while that of Nanking stood, it was considered superior to all its rivals. The most remarkable product of Chinese industry is the great wall of China, built in the IIIrd century B. C., to protect the Manchoorian frontier against invasion. Its length is fifteen hundred miles; and for long distances its height is from fifteen to thirty feet The sides are stone; the inner mass is earth. Towers forty feet high, at intervals of a hundred yards, provide elevated stations of observation for watchmen and shelter to soldiers. This wall is not limited to the lowland; it crosses many hills, and in one place reaches an elevation of five thousand feet above the sea.

Their cities are large but not beautiful. Most of the streets are very narrow; and they are neither well paved nor clean. Everything that can enrich the soil is saved and transported through the streets in methods that are often very offensive to the eye and nose of the European.

SEC. 199. Different Arts.-Nearly all the land fit for tillage is used to produce food for man. None is reserved for pasture, and little for roads or purposes of ornament. There are no extensive public or private parks, no beautiful gardens about the homes of the poor or the rich. Williams estimates that the area cultivated is 1,000,000 square miles, or about two acres for each inhabitant.' The hills are terraced, and much land is irrigated by buckets or by pumps driven by hand.

China has few herds. Sheep, goats, cows, and horses are rare. Animal food is not abundant and consists mainly of fish, fowls, and pigs. Milk, butter, and cheese are unknown to the people; and so are woolen garments. No There are no coaches Freight is transported

space is cultivated in grass. or heavy four-wheeled wagons.

in boats, on the shoulders of men, in wheelbarrows,

and sometimes in carts drawn by asses. narrow, and never well paved.

The roads are

The porcelain of China is unsurpassed in its excellence as an industrial production, but in the features of form and color it is surpassed by that of various European nations. The junks are clumsy in appearance but cheap in cost and good in sailing qualities. The aggregate tonnage of the water craft is supposed to be nearly equal to that of any other nation, and a large number of the people make their home in boats that never venture out to sea. It is said that there have been 80,000 boats at one time on the waters near Canton. The largest Chinese junks measure two thousand tons. The Chinese are expert fishermen with the hook and net; and they make much use of the cormorant, which catches fish for them, and, if not well trained, is kept from swallowing its game by a ring on its throat.

Many branches of Chinese industry are not highly developed. Most of the land transportation and loosening of the soil for cultivation is done by human muscle. Beasts of burden and draught, and mills driven by water and steam, were unknown until within recent years. There is no large manufacturing establishment, no complex machinery, no instrument of high precision of Chinese manufacture, no application of superior chemical knowledge to industrial uses.

SEC. 200. Manners.-In no other country is there so much social equality as in China. There is no hereditary nobility save that in the family of Confucius; there is no hereditary office save that of emperor. Great wealth and great poverty are extremely rare. Habits of industry are almost universal, and mendicants and loungers relatively few. The necessaries of life are cheap;

and the style of living, with rare exception, simple among the rich and extremely plain among the poor. The Chinese have no magnificent private residences, no spacious parks, no beautiful drives, no elegant wagons, no horses bred with care for carriage or saddle, no luxurious hotel, nor much-frequented pleasure resort on mountain-top or sea-shore, no public gymnastic exercises, no games like cricket or base-ball, no dancing parties for the pleasure of the participants, no elegant galleries of painting or sculpture. In its general features, the life of the Chinese is bare, unpoetical, inelegant, and coarsely utilitarian. It is a continuous strain for the mere necessaries of existence, including an education narrow in its aims and barren in its results.

The Chinese are polite. In all grades of society, children are reared strictly and instructed carefully in their manners. Marked respect is exacted from ignorance to learning, from youth to age, from private to public station, and from child to parent. An elaborate code, under governmental supervision, prescribes the forms with which officials must be approached, and the manner in which they must dress and keep their dwellings and offices. The demeanor of men towards one another is much influenced by rank, which, among scholars and officials, is indicated by dress or cap. They speak of themselves in terms of exaggerated depreciation. A man addressing an equal calls him "my noble master," and calls himself "your stupid slave;" he calls his friend's son "worthy young gentleman," and his own son “little bug;" he calls his friend's wife "the honorable lady," and his own wife "the mean one of the inner apartments." With all their politeness, they have no such phrases as "good-morning," "good-night," and "how do you do?"

At meeting they say "hail! hail!" at parting, “I pray you;" and when inquiring in general terms of a friend about his health, they ask, "Have you eaten rice?"

To many Europeans the ceremonious politeness of all classes of Chinamen, even the poorest, to one another, seems unreasonable and burdensome in its numerous and punctilious observances. Some travelers, however, find that in a comparison between the manners of the Chinese and the European poor the latter appear to a decided disadvantage.' Another observer thinks that the servility of the poor in China and the arrogance of the powerful are disgusting to the man who has a proper respect for the dignity of humanity."

In China there are five social ranks based on occupation. First and most honorable are scholars; second, tillers of the soil; third, manufacturers; fourth, merchants; and fifth, the dishonorable, including slaves, jailers, executioners, actors, criminals, and their sons and grandsons. Dishonorable persons cannot be admitted into the class of scholars.

The Chinese show much aptitude for the combination and organization of their forces. They have many associations for business and charitable purposes. They have asylums for lepers, for the blind, for old men, for the sick, for orphans, and for foundlings; they have vaccine dispensaries, stations for the rescue of drowning persons, and soup kitchens for the indigent. Girl children are not unfrequently exposed and left to die by parents who do not feel able to support them, or they are sold as slaves,

The amusements of the people are few and simple. They include acrobatic, juggling, and dramatic performances, boat-races, wrestling-matches, kite-flying, and

playing shuttlecock, which last is struck not with a bat, or the hand, but with the foot. There is no gladiatorial fight, boxing-match, bull-fight, dog-fight, or bull or bearbaiting, no dancing-party, no gathering of both sexes for cards, no church fairs, no exhibitions of agricultural or manufactured products, no large picnics or excursions of both sexes. There is no weekly or monthly day of rest; and including those at the new year, there are not a dozen holidays in the twelve-month.

Fermented and distilled liquors, though known to the Chinese since a remote antiquity, have never been used by them extensively, and are not sold in dram-shops. The favorite narcotic of the Chinese is opium, which stupefies its consumer without taking him through a noisy or quarrelsome condition. It is the drug of a peaceful people.3

SEC. 201. Matrimony.-The Chinese are divided into about a hundred exogamous masculine clans, which average 4,000,000 members each, each clan having its distinctive name, which is part of the name of all its clansmen. Some of these clans extend through many provinces, and include persons who must go back at least thirty or forty generations to find a common ancestor. But no matter how remote the relationship, if they have the same clan name, which is known to all acquaintances, they cannot intermarry. There are large villages in which all the inhabitants are fellow-clansmen, and the men must go to other villages for wives. In the smaller villages the clan relationship is recognized as an intimate bond of social union and obligation, and it often influences the election of the local officials, the administration of justice, and the support of persons disabled by age or sickness.