conceives all the elements to have existed in infinit parts. "All things were together, infinite in numb smallness, and this smallness was infinite, and a together, nothing was distinct because of its smallnes was put in motion by a mind which governed all, elements attained differences of character by the pr ance of one or other. The small particles are in motion. There are of these particles endless nur every character; so a piece of gold consists of endle of gold, so also silver, copper, blood, bones, flesh fire, and earth, consist of infinitely small portions substances.+ To effect this he adds, that everyth found in everything, because, as the animal grows food, the parts of the animal must be contained in A kind of reasoning which, in one sense, is undenial no proper account is taken of the formation of co bodies, although his ideas of mixed and simple e might have been supposed to lead him to this mode of ing, without the invention of homoiomereia (or homed the name given to this notion of every body being for particles like to it.

In this we find a want of discrimination in sep metals from organic substances, the changes of whic much more allied to transformations, but we find philosophy obtaining a view of mind and matter as and the existence of a ruling power, God, introduce science. But even here there was some difficulty in ing an idea of power without matter, and that is ma an ether, which, however, has an undefined meaning, al it seems generally to refer to a more refined kind expanded into force and intelligence.

It is by no means intended to expound the various sophies of the ancients, and so from Parmenides we ca

find two ideas exactly suiting the subject. First, all is one. There is only one existence, and there is nothing but existence. Secondly, thought is completeness. Here we may then say that we have got an opinion different from the preceding, in which physical forces have no independent place, although some of the expressions of this philosopher would lead to believe that he considered the earth as the origin of all things, acted on by fire.

Zeno, of Elea, had four elements, warm and cold, moist and dry, corresponding to the four ordinary elements, with necessity as a moving force regulating all; concord and discord (attraction and repulsion) were some of its manifestations; but in reality nothing existed. We have then, one after another, a play on every one of the elements, each elevated in its turn, diminished to one or to a mere idea, or increased to an endless extent, where idea is only the action of an element.

Empedocles gives more distinct form to the four elements, at the same time elevating them by the name of gods. With him they are eternal, and consisting of minute parts, which although divisible, are never divided. This is an early approach to our present chemical theory of a diversity of elements, not transmutable. The principal place is given to fire. But the four were upheld logically, when he said they were never divided; but he afterwards adds that they were in reality only two. By him a new phase of character was given to the elements, for he says "our souls consist of all four elements, and every element is itself a soul."*"Life can only be known by life; for by the earth we know the earth, by the water the water, the divine air by the air, the devouring fire by fire, love by love only, and strife by direful strife." The principle of love (piλia) he held to be the origin of the elements, and the cause of their unions; the opposite prin

Tiedemann, Vol. I., p. 253. † Quoted by Ritter, Vol. I., p. 454.

ciple (vεukos) discord, acting with it, produced the various changes. We have here attraction and repulsion in their early days; but it is also said by him rather curiously, "discord decomposes the mixtures of the elements, and mixes fire with fire, air with air, each sort of element with its like, whilst concord acts on the contraries,"* as now found with electric-and-poles.

Leucippus first distinctly gave a meaning to the notion of small particles of bodies, which he called atoms. Democritus held the same opinions. Everything is composed of indivisible atoms. They could not be divisible, neither could they be mere points. They have neither colour, taste, smell, heat, nor cold: all these properties are given them by their various mixtures: there are various shapes. The first impulse to motion was given probably by an original force.

This is the real meaning of all he said; everything was referred to atoms, even the soul or mind itself. This is a point of great importance in the history of our knowledge of matter, and one beyond which we have not yet got in some of its relations. Here then we stand and are obliged to review our speculations and inquiries in some respect from the standing point of Leucippus and Democritus. In this view we have a distinct idea attached to the composition of bodies, and although one which might have readily come into the mind of any one who thought clearly on the subject, yet we are not aware of the difficulties attending the production of ideas, viewing them after they have been overcome. Democritus arrived at the idea of distinct atoms forming matter of every kind by the change of position. Anaxagoras was nearly at this point, but he gave the atoms characters exactly like the compound object. Democritus gives the simple bodies only shape, extension, and force. Plato taught that the world was created by an intelligent

LTON, AND

it, produced the various on and repulsion in their by him rather curiously, of the elements, and mixes of element with its like, es," as now found with

meaning to the notion of lled atoms. Democritus is composed of indivisible, neither could they colour, taste, smell, heat, en them by their various The first impulse to Enal force.

e said; everything was mind itself. This is a -y of our knowledge of have not yet got in stand and are obliged ries in some respect us and Democritus. ttached to the comwhich might have o thought clearly on difficulties attending fter they have been ea of distinct atoms hange of position. he gave the atoms ect. Democritus sion, and force. by an intelligent

HISTORY OF THE ATOMIC THEORY.

85 cause, and did not exist from eternity, and that it has passed from order to disorder, because order is better than disorder. God also has endowed the world with reason, it is an animated being, and not to be destroyed, but by him who made it; but he will not destroy it, as the good cannot destroy what is beautifully fitted. The world moves by its own life. The elements seem to Plato, to be only forms under which matter exists, and are convertible one into the other. The five forms of matter serve as a base to determine the elementary forms, the pyramid corresponds to fire, the cube to earth, the octahedron to air, the icosahedron to water, whilst the dodecahedron, like the sphere, comprehends like the earth, all the elements.

These are the expressions of Ritter, but on looking into the original it is not found exactly so, although the mode of reasoning somewhat justifies it. The words are "OT SE, ἔστω δὲ, κατὰ τὸν ὀρθὸν λόγον καὶ κατὰ τὸν ἐικότα, τὸ μὲν τῆς πυραμίδος στερεὸν γεγονος ειδος, πυρὸς στοιχειον και σπερμα,” &c., as in the translation of Davies. "Let it be agreed then that according both to strict probable reasoning the solid form of pyramid is the element and germ of fire," &c.; another way of expressing matter dynamically.

*

*

In the Timæus he says, "First, then, that fire and earth, water and air, are bodies, is evident. * We must relate, then, of what kind these most beautiful bodies were that thus came into being, and which, however unlike each other, may yet be produced from each other by dissolution. By accomplishing this we shall ascertain the truth about the generation of earth and fire, as well as those elements (water and air) which hold an intermediate position, for then we shall allow no one to assert that there are visible bodies more beautiful than these, each of which belongs to a separate class." But this does not seem to have been held firmly, because he says also at 51 Timæus, "Our plastic Creator, reflecting on all this, then mingled and united

matter, fire, and earth, gradually mixing therewith a of acid and salt (ἐξ ὀξεός καὶ ἁλμυρον), and thus he c a soft pulpy flesh."

As to the composition of the elements, as all wa from mind, the separation of mind and matter does n clear. Although he says, also, "It is evident to e that fire, air, water, and earth are elements, but every of body possesses solidity, and every solid must necess contained by planes. Again, a base formed of a p plane surface is composed from triangles. But all t are originally of two kinds, each of them having on a right angle, and the two others acute, and one of t an equal part of a right angle, divided by the equa while in the other, two unequal parts of the right an divided by the unequal sides. This, then, we lay down ing both to probability and necessity, as the origin and p of fire and all other bodies; but as for the heavenly pr thereof, those indeed are known only to the Deity, and among men who enjoy God's favour."* One might he was speaking of the shape of the elements, and we want of definiteness in the forms of conception of the p elements. Again, matter so far as it is only matter m viewed abstractedly from all qualities; qualities are minate conditions of matter. The motions of matt without rule, purpose, or harmony; purpose, order harmony are only to be obtained from the reason.† P was in reality the region of uncertainty, whilst true s was in the reason: we have in modern times adop different opinion. This will probably be enough to e us to find the class to which Plato belongs, as regard subject. By going much further we get into metaph or perhaps worse, into contradictions.

s

† Tennemann. System der Platonischen Philosophie. Vol. III., pp. 3