as the common quantities inclosed by walls, and the latter size, under proper management, with abundance of manure, is capable of supplying a respectable establishment. Where a farm is cultivated by the proprietor, it is found a desirable practice to have part of the more common kitchen-crops, as cabbages, turnips, peas, potatoes, carrots, &c. grown in the fields; the flavor of vegetables so grown being greatly superior to that of those raised in a garden by force of manure. Where a farm is not kept in hand, by annually changing the surface of the garden by trenching (1061), this effect of enriched grounds is considerably lessened.

Justice says, "for a small family, two acres of ground will do; but if for a great family, it should be six or eight acres.' Brit. Gard. Direc. p. 1.

Marshall states, "to assist in resolving on the quantity of ground it may be prudent to cultivate as a garden, a general idea may be given in observing, that an acre with wall-trees, hot-beds, pots, &c. will furnish employment for one man, who, at some busy times, will need assistance. The size of the garden should, however, be proportioned to the house, and to the number of inhabitants it does, or may contain. This is naturally dictated; but yet it is better to have too much ground allotted than too little, and there is nothing monstrous in a large garden annexed to a small house. Some families use few, others many vegetables; and it makes a great difference whether the owner is curious to have a long season of the same production, or is content to have a supply only at the more common times. But to give some rules for the quantity of ground to be laid out, a family of four persons (exclusive of servants) should have a rood of good-working, open ground, and so in proportion. But, if possible, let the garden be rather extensive, according to the family; for then a useful sprinkling of fruit-trees can be planted in it, which may be expected to do well under the common culture of the ground about them; a good portion of it also may be allotted for that agreeable fruit the strawberry in all its varieties; and the very disagreeable circumstance of being at any time short of vegetables will be avoided. It should be considered also that artichokes, asparagus, and a long succession of peas and beans, require a good deal of ground. Hot-Beds will also take up much room, if any thing considerable be done in the way of raising cucumbers, melons, &c.” Introd. to Gard. p. 25.

As to the size of a garden, Forsyth observes," it may be from one acre to six or eight within the wall, according to the demand for vegetables in the family."

SECT. IV. Shelter and Shade.

1077. To combine adequate shelter, with a free exposure to the rising and setting sun, is essentially necessary, and may be reckoned one of the most difficult points in the formation of a garden.

The kitchen-garden, Nicol states, "should be sheltered by plantations; but should by no means be shaded, or be crowded by them. If walled round, it should be open and free on all sides, or at least to the south-east and west, that the walls may be cloathed with fruit-trees on both sides." Kal. p. 6.

According to M Phail, for bringing the produce of the soil to the greatest perfection, the garden should be sheltered from the east, north, and west winds, by hills, rising grounds, high buildings, or plantations of trees, at such a distance on the east and west sides, as not to prevent the sun from shining upon it." Gard. Rem. 2d edit. p. 12.

Abercrombie looks to shade as well as shelter, and observes, "that competent fences are serviceable in sheltering tender seedlings, and in forming warm borders for early crops and winter standing plants; while in another direction some part of the line of fence will afford a shady border in summer, which is required by the peculiar constitutions of many small annual plants. Where a kitchen-garden incloses two, three, or four acres, it will admit cross walls at proper distances, by which the advantages just mentioned may be multiplied." Prac. Gard. 2d edit. p. 3.

The garden, observes Marshall, ought to be sheltered as much as can be from the north and east winds." These points of the compass should be guarded against by high and good fences, by a wall of at least ten feet high, lower walls do not answer so well for fruit-trees, though one of eight may do. A garden should be so situated as to be as much warmer as possible than the general temper of the air is without, or ought to be made warmer by the ring and subdivision-fences. This advantage is essential to the expectation we have from a garden locally considered. As to trees planted without the wall, to break the wind, it is not to be expected to reap much good this way, except from something more than a single row; i. e. a plantation. Yet the fall of leaves by autumnal winds is troublesome; and a high wall is therefore adviseable. Spruce firs have been used in close shorn hedges; which, as evergreens, are proper enough to plant for a screen in a single row, though not very near to the wall; but the best evergreens for this purpose are the evergreen oak and the cork-tree. The witch-elm, planted close, grows quick, and has a pretty summer appearance behind a wall; but is of little use then, as a screen, except to the west; when still it may shade

too much (if planted near) as it mounts high. In a dry hungry soil, the beech also is very proper, and both bear cutting. The great maple, commonly called the sycamore, is handsome, of quick growth, and being fit to stand the rudest blasts, will protect a garden well in a very exposed situation; the wind to be chiefly guarded against as to strength, in most places, being the westerly." Introd. to Gard. p. 27.

In elevated situations, with a considerable slope to the south, a garden (fig. 287.) may require to be surrounded on all sides by high woods (n), and even to have groups of evergreens, as pines and hollies (e), and hedges of trellis or lattice-work (pp), within the garden. The hot-houses (d), hot-beds (f), may be placed, and more delicate culinary crops (h) cultivated, in an artificial basin or hollow, which will have the advantage of being sheltered both naturally and artificially, and on a steep exposed to the south, will have a powerful influence in accumulating heat in winter from the sun's The south borders of such gardens ( and m), and the walls heated by furnaces (9), will frequently be found to produce earlier crops than gardens placed on level surfaces and in low, sheltered situations.

rays.

Niel observes," shelter in our climate is a primary consideration. This may, in part, be derived from the natural shape and situation of the ground. Gentle declivities, at the bases of the south or south-west sides of hills, or the sloping banks of winding rivers, with a similar exposure, are therefore very desirable. If plantations exist in the neighbourhood of the house, or of the scite intended for the house, the planner of a garden naturally looks to them for his principal shelter; taking care, however, to keep at a reasonable distance from them, so as to guard against the evil of being shaded. If the plantations be young, and contain beech, elm, oak, and other tall-growing trees, allowance is of course made for the future progress of the trees in height. It is a rule that there should be no tall trees on the south side of a garden, to a very considerable distance; for, during winter and early spring, they fling their lengthened shadows into the garden, at a time when every sun-beam is valuable. On the east also, they must be sufficiently removed to admit the early morning rays. The advantage of this is conspicuous in the spring months, when hoar-frost often rests on the tender buds and flowers if this be gradually dissolved, no harm ensues; but if the blossom be all at once exposed to the powerful rays of the advancing sun, when he overtops the trees, the sudden transition from cold to heat often proves destructive. On the west, and particularly on the north, trees may approach nearer, perhaps within less than an hundred

S

feet, and be more crowded, as from these directions the most violent and the coldest winds assail us. If forest-trees do not previously exist on the territory, screen-plantations must be reared as fast as possible. The sycamore (Acer pseudo-platanus) is of the most rapid growth, making about six feet in a season; next to it may be ranked the larch, which gains about four feet; and then follow the spruce and balm of Gilead firs, which grow between three and four feet in the year." Edin. Encyc. art. Hort.

"A garden," Forsyth states, "should be well sheltered from the north and east, to prevent the blighting winds from affecting the trees; and also from the westerly winds, which are very hurtful to the gardens in the spring or summer months. If a garden be not naturally sheltered with gently rising hills, which are the best shelter of any, plantations of forest-trees, made at proper distances, so as not to shade it, will be found the best substitute." Tr. on Fruit Trees, p. 286.

What is of "great import," observes Switzer, is, that the garden be "guarded well with wood," viz. the north-east, south-west, and north-west; the south and south-east being the only aspects that should be open. There is great danger as to the easterly exposition, inasmuch as all blighting winds come from that quarter; so also the southwest is subject to the violent concussions of those winds that come off from the Atlantic or western ocean. But, it may be observed, the sun acting in an oblique manner, and the winds fluctuating horizontally, the garden may be planted all round with wood, between ten and fifteen yards' distance, provided you keep your trees to about fifteen feet high, for security from winds, without any danger of depriving it of the benefit of the sun. Pract. Fruit Gard. 2d edit. p. 18.

SECT. V. Soil.

It

1078. The soil of a garden is obviously of the greatest consequence in its culture. is, however, a subordinate consideration to situation and exposure, for the soil may be changed or improved by art; but no human efforts can remove the site, or change the exposure of a plot of ground. This subject was much more attended to about a century ago, in the days of London and Wise, Switzer and Hitt, than it seems to be at present. Gardeners, in general, depending too much on manures, and other adventitious aids, for securing large, though sometimes ill-flavored, culinary crops. Jethro Tull has some coarse but just remarks on this subject in his Treatise on the Horsehoeing Husbandry, 3d edit. p. 30.

"The best soil for a garden," M'Phail observes, "is a sandy loam, not less than two feet deep, and good earth not of a binding nature in summer, nor retentive of rain in winter; but of such a texture, that it can be worked without difficulty, in any season of the year. It should be remembered, that there are few sorts of fruit-trees, or esculent vegetables, which require less depth of earth to grow in than two feet to bring them to perfection; and if the earth of the kitchen-garden be three or more feet deep, so much the better; for when the plants are in a state of maturity, if the roots, even of peas, spinach, kidney-beans, lettuce, &c. be minutely traced, they will be found to penetrate into the earth, in search of food, to the depth of two feet, provided the soil be of a nature that allows them. If it can be done, a garden should be made on land whose bottom is not of a springy wet nature. If this rule can be observed, draining will be unnecessary; for when land is well prepared for the growth of fruit-trees and esculent vegetables, by trenching, manuring, and digging, it is by these means brought into such a porous temperament, that the rains pass through it without being detained longer than necessary. If the land of a garden be of too strong a nature, it should be well mixed with sand, or scrapings of roads, where stones have been ground to pieces by carriages." Gard. Rem. p. 12.

Abercrombie states, that "the natural soil may be regarded as good, if it be either a hazel-colored loam, or a blackish vegetable earth; or if it be a fat loam mixed with silvery sand, or a moderately light mellow loam. A bed of very light sand or gravel is to be rejected, unless the alternative would give you a soil still more difficult to improve. The worst of all soils for a kitchen-garden is a strong clay. Nevertheless, as both clay and chalk have an attraction for fluid and volatile solutions of oil, a limited proportion of those earths, contributes to form a rich and generous soil. Chalk may abound in a higher proportion than clay, and sand in a higher proportion than either clay or chalk, without causing barrenness. The soils best adapted for moderating the excesses, and compensating the deficiences of heat and moisture in different seasons, are compositions of sand, pulverized chalk, and finely-divided clay, with a proportion of animal or vegetable matter. If the soil be not naturally good to the depth of thirty inches, and thence to three feet, proper earths and composts should be incorporated with it, to make it so, where the tenure does not render the expense unadvisable. It should be done where it is intended to found a complete kitchen-garden; not, indeed, because many esculent plants require more than eighteen

inches depth of good earth, in order to flourish in perfection; nor that even fruit-trees generally will not thrive for a considerable course of time in a suitable soil, full two feet in depth, although three feet on their account is better; but, in order that the gardener may have it in his power to give rest to alternate portions of the soil, without keeping the surface out of crop, by trenching in successive years to different depths, so as to bring any given layer, measuring a spit in thickness, by turns to the bottom, the middle, and the surface, in proportion as the natural soil is unfavorable, it should receive improvement, till it be gradually brought to the desired state. Where something intractable must be taken away, as in the case of a very stony bed, let the ground be trenched, and the larger stones screened or raked out: ameliorate the residue by such earths, manures, and composts, as its defects may require. To give heart to excessively light, sandy, and unstable ground, incorporate with it substantial loam and well-rotted dung. To correct a cold stubborn clay, add drift sand, shell marl, sea-weed, warm light earth, and well-rotted dung. To qualify soot for application in a garden, mix a thirty-sixth part with a heap of compost. If the soil has been rendered cold and wet by the passage and lodgment of water, it is requisite to have the ground effectually drained.' Pract. Gard. p. 2.

Marshall observes, "The soil that suits general cultivation best is a loam, rather the red than the black; but there are good soils of various colors, and this must be as it happens; the worst soil is a cold heavy clay, and the next a light sand; a moderate clay, however, is better than a very light soil, though not so pleasant to work. If the soil is not good, i. e. too poor, too strong, or too light, it is to be carefully improved without delay. Let it first, at least, be thoroughly broke, and cleaned of all rubbish, to a regular level depth at bottom as well as top, so as to give about eighteen inches of working mould, if the good soil will admit of it; none that is bad should be thrown up for use, but rather moved away. This rule of bottom-levelling is particularly neces sary when there is clay below, as it will secretly hold up wet, which should not stand in any part of the garden. When a piece of ground is cleared of roots, weeds, stones, &c. it would be of advantage to have the whole thrown into two feet wide trenches, and lie thus as long as conveniently may be. The ground cannot be too well prepared; for when this business is not performed to the bottom at first, it is often neglected, and may not be conveniently done afterwards; so it happens, that barely a spade's depth (or less) is too often thought sufficient to go on with. There is this great advantage of a deep staple, that in the cultivation of it the bottom may be brought to the top every other year, by double-trenching; and being thus renewed, less dung will do, and sweeter vegetables be grown. Tap-rooted things, as carrots and parsnips, require a good depth of soil." Introd. to Gard. p. 28.

"In laying out a new garden," Forsyth observes, " a very essential point is to make choice of a good soil. It should be two or three feet deep, but if deeper the better, of a mellow pliable nature, and of a moderate dry quality; and if the ground should have an uneven surface, I would by no means attempt to level it, for by that unevenness, and any little difference there may be in the quality, you will have a greater variety of soil adapted to different crops. The best soil for a garden is, a rich mellow loam; and the worst, a stiff heavy clay. A light sand is also a very unfit soil for a garden. Sea coal ashes, or the cleaning of streets and ditches, will be found very proper to mix with a strong soil; and if the ground should be cold, a large quantity of coalashes, sea-sand, or rotten vegetables, should be laid upon it, in order to meliorate and loosen the soil, and render it easy to work. Lime-rubbish, or light sandy earth from fields and commons, will also be found of great service to stiff clayey ground. If the soil be light and warm, rotten neat's dung is the best dressing that you can give it. If horse-dung be ever used, it must be completely rotted, otherwise it will burn up the crop the first hot weather." Tr. on Fr. Trees, p. 290.

Nicol has probably had more experience in the formation of gardens than any of the authors we have quoted, and his remarks "on soils, and how to improve them," merit every attention, and will be duly valued by those who have seen any of the excellent kitchen-gardens he has formed in Fifeshire, Perthshire, and other northern counties. "It is a happy circumstance," he says, "that in many instances we meet with different soils in the same acre. In the same garden they should never he wanting; and where nature (or natural causes) has been deficient, recourse must be had to art; inasmuch as the variety of fruits and vegetables to be cultivated require different soils to produce them in perfection.

"It would be absurd, however, to imagine, that for every particular vegctable there is to be a particular soil prepared. The varieties of soil in any garden may, with propriety, be confined to the following: Strong clayey loam, light sandy loam, (which are the two grand objects,) a composition of one-fourth strong, with three-fourths light loam, half strong and half light, and one-fourth light and three-fourths strong. These,

Book I.

by a proper treatment, and with the proper application of manures, may be rendered productive of any of the known and commonly cultivated vegetables in the highest degree of perfection.

"But, in order to improve a soil, we must be guided much by its nature, so as, if And hence our duty is to endeapossible, to render it serviceable for general purposes. vour to hit on that happy medium which suits the generality of esculents, in the formation or improvement of the soil in the kitchen-garden. Such a soil should be sufficiently tenacious to adhere to the roots of plants, though not so much so as to be binding, which would certainly retard their progress and extension in quest of food.

"Hence a loam of a middle texture, rather inclining to sand, may be considered as the most suitable soil for the purpose here in view, and that on a double account, viz. the greater part of the valuable kinds of kitchen vegetables delight in such soil, and it is worked at less expence than a stiff one; neither in severe droughts is it apt to crack, or be parched, nor in hard frosts is it so apt to throw out tender plants or seeds.

"If soils be too strong, the tender roots of plants push weakly in them; sicken, canker, and perish; and if a soil be too light, and if it be poor withal, plants deposited in it will push their roots far, and in vain, in quest of that stability and nutriment which So that if the butt of our aim be perfection is necessary and essential to their support.

in the production of wholesome and well matured vegetables, we must put aside careless indifference in the formation of a proper soil, nor trust entirely to the force of dungs, were they even to be had in the greatest plenty; for dungs, by too free an application, have an effect on the quality of esculents not altogether salutary.

"Wherefore, that our efforts may be attended with success, let us bestow a moderate and prudent expence in the first outset, on composing or so improving the soil to be appropriated to this purpose, as that, in our best judgment, it may fully answer the

intention.

"In many cases, the soil of the garden might be improved in a very considerable Thus, where the bottom is wet, and the subsoil of a degree, at a small expence. cankering nature, by judicious draining, which is certainly one of the greatest improvements in this case; where the soil is stubborn, by the addition of small gravel, seasand, wherein is a considerable quantity of small pebbles and shells, coal-ashes, lime, gravel, pounded brick bats, brick kiln ashes, &c., and, above all, by being carefully laid up in ridges in the winter months, and, indeed, at all times when not in crop, in such a manner as to give the greatest extent of surface for the weather to act upon; where the soil is a poor sand, or gravel, by the addition of clay, or strong clayey loam, scourings of ditches which run through a clayey subsoil, pond-mud in a like situation, or scrapings of roads which lie in a clayey district, &c.

"Soils that abound with metallic substances, and which generally make them These substances are often found appear of an iron color, are termed fox bent or till. to be intimately mixed, or rather consolidated with the soil, in considerable masses, which are adhesive and very ponderous. Such soils are the most unfavorable to vegetation of any, and are quite ineligible for the purpose here in view, without being much improved. For this purpose, lime will be found the most serviceable of all things, if judiciously applied, and the soil be frequently turned over by digging or trenching, so as that the soil and the lime may be intimately mixed together, and that the atmosphere may have full effect upon them; for without this, the lime will not operate so effectually, nor will the tilly particles of the soil be divided or meliorated so well.

"It may seem unnecessary to observe, that, according to the quantity of irony matter contained in the soil, lime will be required to reduce it. In order to ascertain this quantity, a magnet will be found useful, and one of the masses being calcined, and then reduced to a powder, the magnet will separate the irony particles from the soil, showing the proportion of iron and of earth. Thus we may fertilize the soil, taking for the extremes in ordinary cases, and supposing the lime of a middling quality, 150 and 400 Winchester bushels an acre; applying the lime in a quick or powdered state, and properly working the soil, being careful, in the first place, to drain it of superabundant moisture.

"Ridging up of land, as above hinted at, has the happiest effect, especially for stiff soils, and should never be omitted when the ground is not under crop. In dead sandy loams also, and in cankering gravels, it is of incalculable advantage, and greatly For it is a fact proved by experience, that exposing soil to the sun's meliorates them. rays in part, by throwing it into a heap, whereby it is also partly shaded, and trenching it once a month, or in two months, will sooner restore it to fertility than any other And thus, if any ingredient noxious to process, exclusively of adding fresh matter. vegetation abound in the soil, it may be expelled, or be exhaled by the action of the atmosphere, more particularly if the soil undergo a summer, and also a winter fallow. In the latter case, however, care should be taken to have the surface incrusted by frost, Kk