round the tree, if it is very large, and by turning the swivel-joint, and reversing the wheel, at the same time sending it round the other side of the tree till it meet where it left off, and by counting the feet and inches as above, and adding the two together, When branches are to measure, or you will at once have the extreme girth of the tree. when branches are in the way of getting round the tree with the rods, the person with the small rods stands on the opposite side of the tree, and directs the person when to stop with the wheel. Thus, by a little practice in working the wheel, and paying attention to count the feet and inches as they strike, two men will measure growing or standing trees equally as accurately and as expeditiously as if the trees were lying on the ground. In taking the girth with a line, you have first to put it round the tree, then you double it, and apply it to a foot-rule; you then take the half for the side of the square, whereas this machine gives you the exact feet and inches from the top of Forester's Guide, 208. the highest tree, without the help of any other rule." Neither this machine, nor a mechanical dendrometer, invented about twenty years ago, though both of considerable merit, appear to us so well calculated for general use as the Calibre Timber Measurer, (fig. 70.) 1874. The Books of Accounts for Trees and Plantations have already been mentioned (1059). Some have proposed measuring the whole of, or at least all the detached and hedge-row trees on an estate periodically; numbering each tree, and keeping a corresponding register, by which the proprietor, when at a distance, might give directions for cutting down particular trees, &c. ; but this appears rather too much in the mercantile style for the dignified enjoyment of landed property, and does not promise any very great advantages. CHAP. VII. Of the Formation, Culture, and Management of a Nursery-Garden for the Propagation and Rearing of Trees and Shrubs. 1875. PLANTS of the tree kind are generally procured from the public nurseries, as the plantations of few private land owners are so extensive, or continued through a sufficient number of years to render it worth their while to originate and nurse up their own tree and hedge plants. Exceptions, however, occur in the case of remote situations, and where there are tracts so extensive as to require many years in planting. Besides, as Sang observes, "some are of opinion, that trees, in order to their being rendered sufficiently hardy, should be reared on the soil and situation where they are ultimately to be planted; and if the design be extensive, and such as may require many years for its completion; a conveniently situated nursery is, in that case, highly desirable, not only as saving the carriage of plants, and facilitating the business of transplanting, but as increasing the chance of success, on account of the plants remaining a much shorter time out of the ground than if brought from a distance. If the situation, however, ultimately destined for the trees be cold, high, and bleak, and the soil of course various, some good, and much of it bad, or of an indifferent quality, there it would by no means be advisable to attempt the establishment The chief properties of a nursery, and especially a nursery to raise plants from seeds. of nursery plants intended for transplanting, consist in their strength and cleanness of stem, and in their roots having a multiplicity of healthy fibres; and in order to obtain plants possessing these qualities, it is necessary to sow, and plant out to nurse, if not in rich, at least in mellow carth, and in a moderately sheltered situation." Plant. Kal. 20. The following directions by Sang as to the soil, shelter, aspect, and fencing of a nursery garden are equally applicable to such as are intended for private or commercial purposes: "In order to have a complete nursery, it should contain soils of various qualities, and not less than eighteen inches or two feet deep; the generality of it should be light friable earth; a part of it should be of a clayey nature; and another part should be mossy. Each of these will be found peculiarly useful in the raising of the different kinds of young plants. The whole should be well drained, and trenched, and cropped with vegetables for one or even two years previously to sowing tree seeds. planting, it may be used the first year. For trans "A nursery may certainly be over sheltered; but this is likely to happen only in the case of its being very small; for, if it extend to several acres, unles it be surrounded by very tall trees, the area will be considerably exposed. No part should be either too much exposed, or too much sheltered. "Any aspect from east to west, following the course of the sun, will answer. Ground of an unequal surface is most likely to contain the various soils above mentioned. 4 C 2 nursery should therefore, in general, rise from a level to a pretty smart acclivity; yet no part of it should be too steep, because it is in that case very troublesome to labor. The nursery-ground may be sufficiently fenced by a stone-wall, or even a hedge six feet high; and if it be of small size, an acre or thereabouts, it will require no other shelter; but if it extend to four or five acres, it must have dividing hedges properly situated, to afford shelter over all the space. The fence, whether of thorns or stone, should be made proof against the admission of hares or rabbits. "It should be subdivided into quarters and borders, of proportionate size to the contents of the area, by walks. The quarters should never be encumbered with large trees, as apples, pears, or the like; because, being already established in the ground, they never fail to rob the young trees of their food, and to cause them to be poor and stunted, unworthy of being planted in the forest. "It would be very convenient to have a rill of water passing through the ground, or to have a small pond, fed by a spring or by a pipe, for the purposes of watering.” Plant. Kal. 22. In preparing the soil for the culture of trees it will be advisable to trench it to its full depth, and "necessary," the same author continues, “to give it a good dressing of lime or marl, and dung in compost. Rank manure, such as stable litter, should not be applied to nursery ground, at the time of cropping, with nursery articles; but if it be necessary to enrich it, this should be done by a manured crop of onions, turnips, lettuces, or the like. Potatoes should never go before a crop of seedlings, even of the coarser sorts, as ash, oak, or chestnuts; because potatoes never can be taken clean out of the ground; and it being indispensable to pull up those which rise among the tree seedlings, many of these unavoidably come up along with them. Hence, crops of lettuces, turnips, cabbages, or the like, should rather precede the crop of seedlings The best kind of management in this particular case, is to interchange the crops of timber trees and esculents occasionally; perhaps, with respect to most sorts of seedling plants, alternately, observing to sow all small seeds, in particular, if not in a rich, at least in a fine tilth." Plant. Kal. 24. "For a private nursery," he continues, "no place, certainly, can be more eligible than a field, which may also be occupied as a kitchen-garden. If, for instance, three acres were required for the purposes of nursery, and one or two acres were also required for extra kitchen-ground, or for green crops for cattle feeding, it would be proper to inclose five or six acres, less or more, according to circumstances; by which means, two important objects might be obtained, viz. land of a good quality, and fine tilth. for the raising of seedlings; and an opportunity of effectually changing crops at plessure. Carrots are peculiarly scourging for a nursery, and, indeed, rather severe for most lands: but we have very seldom found a good crop of trees following one of carrots; while we have found peas, beans, and especially lettuces, easy and enriching crops, well adapted as preparers for succeeding crops of nursery articles. "In so far as respects public nurseries, we have long remarked, that those which are much market-gardens as nurseries, generally produce the best seedlings, and young articles, for sale; provided that their ground be any thing more than of a midding quality. This fact, if one were wanting, is a sufficient proof of the utility of occspying the ground as above advised, in the double character of a kitchen-garden and nursery. "In a cold climate, or bleak situation, with a poor, barren soil, we would by no meas advise the raising of seedlings, either in public or private nurseries. It will be found a cheaper, as well as a more satisfactory method, to purchase seedlings, transplant them, and nurse them till fit for final planting; and, even in this case, a piece of the best and most sheltered land in the situation, will be necessary for the purpose." Plant. Kul. 26. 1876. A rotting-ground will be required for the preparation of certain seeds, by mixing them with sand, ashes, or soil, and leaving them there for different periods, from six months to two years, to rot off their interior coverings. On a small scale, a portion of the compost ground of the kitchen-garden may be used for this purpose. If the scale is large, an area of a few square poles should be set apart for bedding in plants taken up for replanting, or what is called laying in by the heels, or shoughing; this is generally called the bedding ground. 1877. If the situation of the nursery be near to the kitchen-garden, and the latter have the proper office buildings (707.) no other erection will be required for the nursery than a working-shed for ordinary purposes, occasional shelter, and protection to newly taken-up plants; and for packing or tying them up properly before sending them to their final situation, &c. Frames and hand-glasses may be required for some of the more tender seeds and seedlings; and, on a large scale, a seed-loft and its appendages, as well as an office for writing, &c. may require to be erected apart from those belonging to the kitchen-garden. 1878. The ground being arranged, and prepared by one or more vegetable crops, the next thing is to stock it with stools, or stock plants, to propagate from by layers, and to procure stocks for grafting or budding, but especially in a private forest-tree nursery with tree-seeds. In the tables of ornamental trees and shrubs (1681 to 1694), given in the preceding book; and in the general index at the end of the work will be found the particular mode of propagation, and the requisite soil, for each tree and shrub by inspecting these sources it will be seen what plants must be procured for stools. If the object is merely forest culture, few, excepting some of limes, poplars, and planes, will be required; but, if tender trees and shrubs are to be reared, the number will be more considerable. Plant the tenderer sorts in the sheltered borders, and the more hardy in the open quarters: the tree kinds may be placed from six to eight feet every way, and the more delicate shrubs from three to six feet apart in suitable soils. Stocks for grafting, whether for fruit or barren trees, are to be planted in nursery rows according to their kinds; those for inarching round the parent plant (889.), or in pots. (890.) 1879. But the principal objects of culture in a private tree-nursery are the hardy trees and shrubs of the country, which produce seeds; and the great object of the pri vate nursery gardener must be to collect or procure these seeds, prepare them for sowing, sow them in their proper seasons, and transplant and nurse them till fit for final planting. We shall arrange the principal trees and shrubs which ripen their seeds in this country; as cones, nuts, berried stones, berries with small seeds, leguminous seeds, and small soft seeds. Before treating of the gathering, storing, separating the seeds, sowing, and nursery culture, of each of these general divisions, it is essential to remark, that in collecting every kind of tree-seed, preference should be given to that produced by trees the largest and most perfect of their kind, and to the fullest and best ripened seeds on these trees. The reasons have been too frequently given in this work to require repetition. Cones may be gathered any time between the ripening season and the following April; but the sooner they are gathered the better, as they supply work for the regular hands of the establishment in bad weather during the winter months; or admit of giving industrious money-making persons work by the job in the winter evenings. The general mode of separating the seeds is by kiln-drying, in the same way as in drying malt, but applying a more gentle heat. : "The cone-kiln is constructed after the manner of a common malt-kiln the bearers should be about nine feet distant from the fire, and two inches apart. A wire-cloth is spread over them from side to side of the kiln, and the cones are laid on it to the thickness of twelve or fourteen inches. A gentle fire is then applied, and regularly kept up till the cones become opened. During the time of drying, the cones must be frequently turned upon the kiln; and when the seeds begin to drop out, they must be removed to the seed-loft, and sifted till all the seeds which are loose fall out, and be taken from among the cones. The cones are afterwards to be thrashed severely with flails, or passed through a hand-threshing machine, and sifted as before, and so on, till the seeds are taken out as completely as possible. "It is, however, a safer method to split the larch cones before putting them into the kiln. This operation is performed by a small flat triangular spatula, sharpened at the point, and cutting angles, and helved like a shoemaker's awl. The cone is held by the fore-finger and thumb of the one hand, upon a flat piece of wood, while, with the other, by the splitter, it is split up from the great end; and afterwards each half is split up the middle, which parts the cone into four divisions. This is by far the best and least destructive to the seeds of any method we know; because the cones so split, when exposed to the heat, are suddenly opened, and readily discharge the seeds; which, consequently, are less injured by the fire heat. “Beside the above method of splitting, there are others. Some people use a conemill, which has large sharp teeth in a concave cylinder, and others fixed in a corresponding roller. The mill is wrought by turning the roller by a handle resembling that of common fanners. The cones are let into the mill by a hopper. This instrument is very difficult to work, and bruises the seeds very much; many of which are of course destroyed. "We have several times made use of the common improved bark-mill, for separating the seeds from larch-fir cones; but the cones are thus so much compressed and bruised, that the seeds suffer exceedingly; and we would by no means advise it: indeed, among all the methods which we have known adopted, to perform the painful and laborious work of extracting the seeds of the larch, the plan of splitting them singly is much the best and safest for the seeds, and ought to be adopted by every one who has occasion to use only small quantities of seed. None of the other kinds of cones require so much labour as the larch, excepting, perhaps, those of the cedar of Lebanon, and black American spruce. : "Cones, which have given out all their seeds, are generally, and very properly, used as fuel for drying other cones. This sort of fuel requires the attention of a very steady feeder indeed, the most careful and attentive are apt to set the full or drying cones on fire, from the resinous nature, and tendency to flame, of the empty cones used as fuel. Such kilns should, therefore, be erected in situations far removed from a dangerous neighbourhood. "The cones of Scots pine, the larch, and the spruce, are the principal kinds which are opened by kiln heat. The cones of the silver fir, the balm of Gilead fir, and the Weymouth pine, give out their seeds with very little trouble: indeed, if they be not gathered soon in autumn, and kept from severe drought, they will fall to pieces of their own accord. Seeds of the white American spruce are only procured from warm situations, and from America, and are generally sold in a clean state, or separated from the cones. Cones of the black and red spruce are brought from America, and sold in the state of cones. These should be split, and exposed in a sieve tilted before a gentle fire, with a sheet of paper below the sieve to receive the seeds as they fall out. The seeds should be removed every quarter of an hour; because they are small, and are very easily injured by the heat. "The cones of cedar of Lebanon should be kept for one year at least, after they are taken from the tree, before the seed be attempted to be taken out. This is necessary, on account of the soft nature of the seeds, and the great quantity of resinous matter which the cones contain when growing, and which is discharged by the keeping. "The best way to take out the seeds of the cedar, is to split the cones, by driving a sharp conical piece of iron through the heart of them. This work, as well as the taking out of the seeds is greatly facilitated, by steeping the cones in water for a day or two, previous to splitting them. The coats of the leaves should be opened with the hand, and the seeds carefully taken out. The cones of the cedar are brought from the Le. vant, and may be purchased with safety for seed, although it be several years since they were taken from the tree." Plant. Kal. 325. 1881. Sowing. April is the best season for all the species; the soil should be in exceliert condition, well mellowed by the preceding winter's frost and snow, carefully dug and raked as fine as possible. All the sorts are sown in beds, excepting the cedar of Lebanon and some pines, and the manner of sowing is by cuffing or bedding in, already described (968) The soil for the Scotch pine, before being dug over in February, should be thickly coated with rotted hot-bed dung: the seeds should be sown so as to rise at the d tance of a quarter of an inch from one another; and the covering should be haf an inch thick. The best preparation for larch seeds is a previous crop of two-years' seedling Scotch pines, and next, a similar crop of the larch. The soil should be dunged and prepared as for the Scotch pine; after sowing the seeds, both of tas tree and the Scotch pine, previous to covering them, draw a light roller along the bed, to press the seeds firmly into the earth; then cover a quarter of an inch thick. The larch should rise at the same distance as the Scotch pine; but the seeds being generay more or less injured in separating, many do not come up, and they are therefore sowa thicker than the other. The seeds of the spruce fir are to be treated like those of the Scotch pine; and the balin of Gilead fir seeds, like those of the larch, only the covering should not be less than half, nor more than three quarters of an inch. The seeds of the silver fir and pinaster require the same sort of treatment as those of the larch. "They must not be sown to rise nearer one another than three in an inva The covering should be a full inch thick, and performed with great accuracy: for if any of the seeds be left too lightly covered, or if any of them be too deeply covered, they will alike be destroyed." Plant. Kal. 332. The seed of the Weymouth and stone pine may be treated like those of the Scotch pine, but the former covered three quarters of an inch thick, and the latter an inch and a quarter. Sang states, that the only way to get stately trees of these, as of most of the pine tribe, is to sow them where they are to rise into timber. "The white American spruce seeds are smaller than those of any of the preceding kinds, and therefore require a lighter covering than any of them. One-fifth of an i is quite sufficient. They should be sown on a piece of fine dry sandy loam, and be covered with earth of rotten leaves of trees to the above thickness, by sifting it upon them." Plant. Kal. $33. "The seeds of black and red American spruce fir are very small and tender. They are still smaller than the seeds of the white American spruce, and therefore reque a covering still lighter than mentioned for it. The black and red American spra BOOK III. CULTURE OF A TREE NURSERY. should be sown on rich boggy earth, which has been made very fine; and should be Cedar of Lebanon seeds should be sown in boxes of light sandy loam; or on a spot The strictest attention should be paid to the foregoing directions, both in regard to 1882. Transplanting. This tribe benefit less by transplanting than the non-resinous trees; and therefore where circumstances admit, the better plan is, after the seedlings have stood two years in the seed-bed, to remove them where they are finally to remain. The exceptions are those sorts which are transplanted into pots, as the cedars and cypresses, and some of the more delicate pines, which may be kept in the nursing state, in pots, several years, as their roots can be turned out entire. About the middle of April is the proper time for transplanting all the resinous tribe, excepting the larch; for, as this tree pushes earlier than the others, it should be transThe first operation common to all seedlings is to planted in February and March. loosen the roots of the plants in the seed-bed with a fork, so as, when drawn out by the hand, they may come up with all their fibres entire. The ground, which must be mellow, need not be so rich as for sowing the seeds; being previously prepared, they should be immediately planted in the trench manner (933.) The Scotch pine is generally planted in lines twelve inches apart, and the plants a foot distant in the lines; if intended to remain two years in the lines, they should be placed six inches apart in the line; but they always rise with the best roots, after being only one year transplanted. The spruce and balm of Gilead firs should generally be transplanted at two years; The silver fir may be but if weak in the seed-bed, may remain till the third year. They should be planted at If to be nursed only the same distances as the Scotch pine, in humid rich earth. treated in the same manner, but it requires rather more space. one year, they may be planted in lines nine inches apart, and at six inches distance in the lines; but if to remain two years, then fifteen inches between the lines, and eighteen The Weymouth pine should be transplanted at inches in the line will be necessary. two years into a well pulverized, rich, and sub-humid soil, where it should remain two years before final planting; distance between the lines twelve inches, and from plant to plant eight inches. The pinaster and stone pine generally rise to well-sized plants the first season after sowing, and should then be transplanted into a rich, well comminuted soil, rather sandy Great care and dry, at nine inches between the lines, and four inches apart in the lines. After remaining there one year, they should be removed to their final situation. is requisite in moving these plants, especially the stone pine, which sends down very long roots. The white American spruce, after remaining two years in the seed-bed, should be nursed two years in rich sandy and rather dry soil, in lines distant twelve inches, and The black and red American spruce are much the plants six inches apart in the lines. After being two years in the seed-bed, they should be more delicate than the white. planted out in beds of sandy or subpeaty soil, at six inches apart, to stand for one year; at the end of this period, they should be lifted and planted in rows at the same distances as the white American spruce. The cedar of Lebanon, when one year old, should be lifted and planted in pots of the finest soil; or in lines, at the same distance as the silver fir; after being two years nursed, it should be removed to its final situation, as it never does much good if planted finally at a greater age unless in pots, which is much the best method. The red and white cedars and cypress may remain two years in the seed-bed, and then be treated like the cedar of Lebanon. The larch may be moved from the seed-bed into the nursing lines, at one or at two The soil to receive them should be soft, tender, and prepared by a crop of esyears. culent vegetables with dung the preceding season; but they should never be planted in land newly manured with fresh dung. One year's seedlings, to be nursed one year, should be planted four inches apart in the lines; but if to stand for two years, five 4 C4 |