This political event was followed by the restoration of science, the establishment of colleges, schools, libraries, throughout the dominions of the Arabians. Those conquerors, pressing forward rapidly in their intellectual development, rejected the anthropomorphic ideas of the nature of God remaining in their popular belief, and accepted other more philosophical ones, akin to those that had long previously been attained to in India. The result of this was a second conflict, that respecting the nature of the soul. Under the designation of Averroism, there came into prominence the theories of Emanation and Absorption. At the close of the middle ages the Inquisition succeeded in excluding those doctrines from Europe, and now the Vatican Council has formally and solemnly anathematized them. Meantime, through the cultivation of astronomy, geography, and other sciences, correct views had been gained as to the position and relations of the earth, and as to the structure of the world; and since Religion, resting itself on what was assumed to be the proper interpretation of the Scriptures, insisted that the earth is the central and most important part of the universe, a third conflict broke out. In this Galileo led the way on the part of Science. Its issue was the overthrow of the Church on the question in dispute. Subsequently a subordinate controversy arose respecting the age of the world, the Church insisting that it is only about six thousand years old. In this she was again overthrown. The light of history and of science had been gradu ally spreading over Europe. In the sixteenth century the prestige of Roman Christianity was greatly diminished by the intellectual reverses it had experienced, and also by its political and moral condition. It was clearly seen by many pious men that Religion was not accountable for the false position in which she was found, but that the misfortune was directly traceable to the alliance she had of old contracted with Roman paganism. The obvious remedy, therefore, was a return to primitive purity. Thus arose the fourth conflict, known to us as the Reformation-the second or Northern Reformation. The special form it assumed was a contest respecting the standard or criterion of truth, whether it is to be found in the Church or in the Bible. The determination of this involved a settlement of the rights of reason, or intellectual freedom. Luther, who is the conspicuous man of the epoch, carried into effect his intention with no inconsiderable success; and at the close of the struggle it was found that Northern Europe was lost to Roman Christianity. We are now in the midst of a controversy respecting the mode of government of the world, whether it be by incessant divine intervention, or by the operation of primordial and unchangeable law. The intellectual movement of Christendom has reached that point which Arabism had attained to in the tenth and eleventh centuries; and doctrines which were then discussed are presenting themselves again for review; such are those of Evolution, Creation, Development. a Offered under these general titles, I think it will be found that all the essential points of this great controversy are included. By grouping under these comprehensive heads the facts to be considered, and dealing with each group separately, we shall doubtless acquire clear views of their inter-connection and their historical succession. I have treated of these conflicts as nearly as I conveniently could in their proper chronological order, and, for the sake of completeness, have added chapters on— An examination of what Latin Christianity has done for modern civilization. A corresponding examination of what Science has done. The attitude of Roman Christianity in the impending conflict, as defined by the Vatican Council. The attention of many truth-seeking persons has been so exclusively given to the details of sectarian dissensions, that the long strife, to the history of which these pages are devoted, is popularly but little known. Having tried to keep steadfastly in view the determination to write this work in an impartial spirit, to speak with respect of the contending parties, but never to conceal the truth, I commit it to the considerate judgment of the thoughtful reader. JOHN WILLIAM DRAPER. UNIVERSITY, NEW YORK, December, 1873. CONTENTS. Religious condition of the Greeks in the fourth century before Christ.— Their invasion of the Persian Empire brings them in contact with new aspects of Nature, and familiarizes them with new religious sys- tems.—The military, engineering, and scientific activity, stimulated by the Macedonian campaigns, leads to the establishment in Alex- andria of an institute, the Museum, for the cultivation of knowledge by experiment, observation, and mathematical discussion.—It is the Religious condition of the Roman Republic.—The adoption of imperial- ism leads to monotheism.— Christianity spreads over the Roman Empire. The circumstances under which it attained imperial power make its union with Paganism a political necessity. — Tertullian's description of its doctrines and practices.—Debasing effect of the policy of Constantine on it.—Its alliance with the civil power.-Its incompatibility with science.-Destruction of the Alexandrian Li- brary and prohibition of philosophy.—Exposition of the Augustinian philosophy and Patristic science generally.—The Scriptures made the The Egyptians insist on the introduction of the worship of the Virgin Mary.—They are resisted by Nestor, the Patriarch of Constantinople, but eventually, through their influence with the emperor, cause Nes- tor's exile and the dispersion of his followers. Prelude to the Southern Reformation.—The Persian attack; its moral The Arabian Reformation.—Mohammed is brought in contact with the Nestorians.-He adopts and extends their principles, rejecting the worship of the Virgin, the doctrine of the Trinity, and every thing in opposition to the unity of God.-He extinguishes idolatry in Arabia, by force, and prepares to make war on the Roman Empire. —His successors conquer Syria, Egypt, Asia Minor, North Africa, As the result of this conflict, the doctrine of the unity of God was estab- lished in the greater part of the Roman Empire.-The cultivation of science was restored, and Christendom lost many of her most illustrious capitals, as Alexandria, Carthage, and, above all, Jerusalem By the influence of the Nestorians and Jews, the Arabians are turned to the cultivation of Science.-They modify their views as to the destiny of man, and obtain true conceptions respecting the structure of the world. They ascertain the size of the earth, and determine its shape. -Their khalifs collect great libraries, patronize every department of science and literature, establish astronomical observatories. They develop the mathematical sciences, invent algebra, and improve geom- etry and trigonometry.-They collect and translate the old Greek mathematical and astronomical works, and adopt the inductive method of Aristotle. They establish many colleges, and, with the aid of the Nestorians, organize a public-school system. They introduce the Arabic numerals and arithmetic, and catalogue and give names to the stars. They lay the foundation of modern astronomy, chemistry, and physics, and introduce great improvements in agriculture and |