accuse this truly great man of selfish personal ambition, of carelessness for the true interest of his country, and to impute to him the most unworthy motives in all his efforts for colonial independence.

The continued presence of Columbian troops, who remained quartered at Lima, was a cause of great complaint, both from the expense of their maintenance and the prevalent idea that they were kept there to suppress any free and independent action of the people, and to render perpetual those extraordinary powers conferred upon the commander-in-chief to meet the exigencies of civil war. These apprehensions were removed, during the year following the reduction of Callao, by the revolt and removal of the obnoxious forces, and by the election of General La Mar to the presidency of Peru.

The government had not, however, the elements of stability, and the country remained a prey to factious disturbance and civil war. In the words of Commander Wilkes, the history of the state "may be said to be merged in biographical memoirs of its several rulers, who have, without an exception, acted for self-aggrandizement, without ever looking to the benefit of their country, its peace, or happiness. They have, in their public decrees and acts, been lavish and prodigal of the words honour, liberty, justice, &c., in order to extol themselves and decry their opponents; yet, without exception, the moment they have attained power, they have pursued the very course they before reprobated, and the country has continued to suffer."

At the present time Peru is involved in difficulties with Bolivia, threatening, if not indeed amounting to an actual state of war. The limited extent of available sea-coast belonging to the latter country renders her peculiarly dependent upon Peru for commercial facilities; and among other offensive acts, a heavy transit duty has been levied on all goods destined for Bolivia. Possession has also been taken of the port of Cobija by a Peruvian squadron.

CHILI.

CHAPTER I.

EXPEDITION OF ALMAGRO.-COMMISSION OF PEDRO DE VALDIVIA

-ST. JAGO FOUNDED.-BATTLE WITH THE MA POCHINIANS.

-EMBASSY OF MIRANDA AND MONROY.-DESTRUCTION

OF THE QUILLOTAN MINERS.-VALDIVIA'S MARCH
SOUTHWARD. THE ARAUCANIANS.

ELATED by their triumphant successes in Peru, and with their thirst for riches unappeased by the possession of the untold treasure of the inca, the Spanish invaders turned their attention to the unexplored sea-coast at the south, as a further field for their rapacity. The command of an expedition to Chili was accordingly assumed by Diego de Almagro, the comrade in arms and rival of Pizarro, and a well-appointed band of adventurers, numbering, as is stated, five hundred and seventy, set forth under his guidance, towards the close of the year 1535. A vast army of native Peruvians, commanded by a brother of the new inca, accompanied him, hopeful of better fortune under a European leader, than their countrymen had experienced in former times when engaged in war with the Chilians Instead of following the sea-coast, Almagro took his course over the mountains, as being the shortest route, a choice which resulted in terrible destruction to his forces. The snow-covered Andes were to be crossed by an army worn out by long marches, insufficiently protected from the severities of the season, and suffering from starvation. Thousands of the Peruvian auxiliaries and about one-fourth of the Spaniards perished during the passage.

In the province of Copiapo, one of those formerly brought under Peruvian dominion, rest and supplies of provision soon recruited the strength and spirit of the army. According to the historians of the

expedition, the invaders were received by the native Chilians with respect and hospitality, but opportunity was not long wanting for a full display of Spanish cruelty and revenge. Two straggling soldiers for what offence is not known-were put to death at Guasco, and, as a lesson to the inhabitants, Almagro caused Marcando, the ulmen, or chief of Coquimbo, together with more than twenty of the most considerable persons in the community, to be seized and burned alive, without the shadow of trial, or even the accusation of having taken part in the offence. It appears that the general conduct of the Spaniards on their march was replete with cruelty towards the harmless peasantry of the villages through which they passed.

Fresh forces had now arrived from Peru, under command of Rodrigo de Orgoñez, and Almagro directed his course southward through the rich and flourishing districts heretofore rendered tributary to Peru. Still another reinforcement of recruits was brought out by Juan de Rada, who bore dispatches to the commander-in-chief, of a nature to turn the current of his thoughts from the present theatre of warlike operations. These contained his formal appointment, by the crown of Spain, to the government of a large district lying next south of that already confirmed to Pizarro. The imperfect surveys of the period had not definitely fixed the line of division, and Almagro was assured, by letters from his friends in Peru, that the capital itself lay within his newly-acquired territory. That active soldier would not, however, immediately give up his dreams of conquest, although the extravagant hopes of his companions in adventure, as to the acquisition of further treasures in gold and silver, were by this time greatly damped. He pushed on to the banks of the Rio Claro, where the warlike Promaucians rallied to oppose his further advance. To their astonishment, the Spaniards found themselves engaged with an enemy whose courage and fortitude might compare favourably with that of veteran soldiery. After some useless fighting, resulting in little advantage to either party, Almagro was not unwilling to listen to the entreaties of his followers, that an enterprise offering little prospect of any thing but hard blows, should now be abandoned. He took his course northward across the extensive desert of Atacama, avoiding the perils of a march over the mountains, but exposed to great suffering from the arid and inhospitable nature of the plains to be traversed. His return and seizure of Cuzco, in 1538, with his further adventures in

the bloody civil war which ensued, and his final defeat and execution, have been mentioned in the history of Peru.

Two years later, after the death of his companion and rival, Pizarro commissioned one of his own officers, Pedro de Valdivia, to lead another expedition into Chili. De Hoz, who had previously come out from Spain, with the royal authority to undertake this exploit, was assigned a subordinate position.

Valdivia, profiting by the experience of Almagro, conducted his followers across the Andes at a more favourable season of the year than that chosen by his predecessor. He consequently met with trifling loss upon the route. The company sent into Chili at this time, was composed of different materials from that of Almagro, as it was proposed to form a permanent settlement at some favourable point, in order to acquire a foothold in the country for further conquest and colonization. There were, therefore, in addition to an efficient force of two hundred Spaniards and a host of Peruvians, a number of women and priests. Domestic animals were also provided for the use of the infant colony.

The news of the overthrow of the inca had by this time reached Chili, and a favourable opportunity seemed presented to the tributary provinces for a recovery of their former independence. The invaders found themselves resisted and harassed at every point, but as no united effort was made by the inhabitants of different districts, they were enabled to force their way through the provinces of Copiapo, Coquimbo, Quillota, and Melipilla. At Mapocho, the fer tility and beauty of the country induced the commander to establish his first settlement upon the bank of the river which bears the name of the province. The city of St. Jago was accordingly founded on the 24th of February, 1541.

Mapocho was one of the most populous provinces of Chili, and the inhabitants speedily exhibited their determination to expel the intruders. The Spanish commander having learned of an intended attack, seized several of the Mapochinian chiefs, and took his posi tion, with a body of cavalry, upon the bank of the river Cochapoal, to prevent their subjects from effecting a union with the natives of the adjoining province. "The Mapochinians," says Molina, "taking advantage of the departure of the general, fell upon the colony with inconceivable fury, burned the half-built houses, and assailed the citadel, wherein the inhabitants had taken refuge, upon all sides. While they defended themselves valiantly, a woman, named Inez

Suarez, animated with a spirit more cruel than courageous, seized an axe, and beat out the brains of the captive chiefs, who had attempted to break their fetters and regain their liberty." The return of Valdivia, with the cavalry, turned the scale, and after the slaughter of an immense number of native warriors, the survivors fled to the mountains. From these places of retreat, for years thereafter, they sallied forth to annoy the Spaniards and prevent their obtaining supplies. The country around St. Jago, which had been the garden of Chili, was now deserted and uncultivated, as the colonists were unable to extend their agricultural operations beyond the bounds protected by their fort. Great suffering ensued from want of sufficient and wholesome food.

A new source of wealth was finally developed by the opening of gold mines in the valley of Quillota, a region to which Valdivia's attention had been directed by the reports of the natives. Unfortunately for the convenience and interest of the city, it had no navigable communication with the sea; but to secure a means of intercourse with Peru, a vessel was built at the debouchement of the river Chile. To excite further interest in the colony, the governor, Valdivia, commissioned two officers of his band, Alonzo Monroy and Pedro Miranda, with six associates, and an escort of thirty mounted men, to proceed by land to Peru. The trappings and stirrups of the ambassadors were directed to be made of gold, as an ostentatious display of wealth, calculated to attract the attention of fresh adventurers. This party was attacked on the road by a body of native archers, led by Coteo, an officer of the ulmen of Copiapo, and every man was slain except the two envoys. These were taken before the chief, grievously wounded, and would have been promptly put to death but for the intercession of the ulmena, or wife of the ulmen. This kind-hearted woman took the utmost care of her protégés, and, having healed their wounds, manifested her confidence in their good faith by entrusting them with the instruction of her son in the art of horsemanship. The two Spaniards, perceiving that a way of escape lay open to them, did not scruple, at a favourable opportunity, to slay the young prince, and, dashing through the unmounted attendant archers, were soon beyond pursuit. It is not pretended that this cruel and ungrateful murder was any further essential to their proposed plan of escape, than as creating a momentary panic and confusion among the guards. They made their way in safety across the intervening deserts, and, reaching Peru, bore