BLUE-BELL

Brittany, put to death for his crimes in 1440.

Blue-bell, a name given to the wild hyacinth (Scilla nutans) and to the hare-bell (Campanula rotundifolia).

Blue-berry, an American species of whortleberry (Vaccinium pennsylvanicum). Blue-bird, a small dentirostral, insessorial bird, the Erythăca, or Sialia Wilsoni, very common in the United States. The upper part of the body is blue, and the throat and breast of a dirty red. It makes its nest in the hole of a tree or in the box that is so commonly provided for its use by the friendly farmer. The blue-bird is the harbinger of spring to the Americans; its song is cheerful, continuing with little interruption from March to October, but is most frequently heard in the serene days of the spring. It is also called blue robin or blue redbreast, and is regarded with the same sort of sentiments as the robin of Europe.

Blue-books, the official reports, papers, and documents printed for the British government and laid before the Houses of Parliament. They are so called simply from being stitched up in dark-blue paper wrappers, and include bills presented to and acts passed by the houses; all reports and papers moved for by members or granted by government on particular subjects; the reports of committees; statistics of the trade, &c., also, in America and England, a book containing the names of all persons holding public offices, with other particulars.

Blue-Bottle, Centaurea Cyănus, Bachelor's button, rather tall and slender, with blue flowers, growing in corn-fields.

Blue-bottle Fly, a large blue species of blow-fly (Musca vomitoria).

Blue-breast. Same as Blue-throat. Blue-coat School. See Christ's Hospital. Blue-fish (Temnodon or Pomatomus saltator), a fish common on the eastern coasts of America, allied to the mackerel, but larger, growing to the length of three feet or more, and much esteemed for the table. It is very destructive to other fishes. It is also called horse-mackerel, green-fish, skipjack, &c.

Blue-gowns, an order of paupers in Scotland, called also the King's Bedesmen, to whom the kings annually distributed certain alms on condition of their praying for the royal welfare. Their number was equal to the number of years the king had lived. The alms consisted of a blue gown or cloak, a purse containing as many shillings Scots

BLUE-STOCKING.

(pennies sterling) as the years of the king's age, and a badge bearing the words 'Pass and repass,' which protected them from all laws against mendicity. Edie Ochiltree, in Sir W. Scott's novel of the Antiquary, is a type of the class. The practice of appointing bedesmen was discontinued in 1833, and the last of them drew his last allowance from the exchequer in Edinburgh in 1863.

Blue-grass (Poa pratensis), an American pasture grass of great excellence, especially abundant in Kentucky.

Blue Island, Cook co., Ill. Pop. 6114.

Blue Laws, a name for certain laws said to have been made in the early government of New Haven, Connecticut, anent breaches of manners and morality, but most of which probably never existed.

Blue Light. See Bengal Light. Blue-mantle, one of the English pursuivants-at-arms, connected with the Heralds' College.

Blue Mountains, the central mountain range of Jamaica, the main ridges of which are from 6000 to 8000 feet high. Also a mountain chain of New South Wales, part of the great Dividing Range. The highest peaks rise over 4000 feet above the sea. The range is now traversed by a railway, which attains a maximum height of 3494 feet.

Blue Nile. See Nile.

Blue Peter, a blue flag having a white square in the centre, used to signify that the ship on which it is hoisted is about to sail.

Blue-pill, a preparation of mercury for medicinal use. It consists of two parts by weight of mercury triturated with three parts of conserve of roses till it loses its globular form. This is mixed with one part by weight of liquorice-root powder, so that 5 grains of the mixture contain 1 grain of mercury.

Blue Ridge, the most easterly ridge of the Alleghany or Appalachian Mountains. The most elevated summits are the peaks of Otter (4000 feet) in Virginia.

Blue-stocking, a literary lady: applied usually with the imputation of pedantry. The term arose in connection with certain meetings held by ladies in the days of Dr. Johnson for conversation with distinguished literary men. One of these literati was a Mr. Benjamin Stillingfleet, who always wore blue stockings, and whose conversation at these meetings was so much prized that his absence at any time was felt

BLUE-STONE

to be a great loss, so that the remark became common, 'We can do nothing without the blue-stockings; hence these meetings were sportively called blue-stocking clubs, and the ladies who attended them blue-stockings.

Blue-stone, or BLUE-VITRIOL, sulphate of copper, a dark-blue crystalline salt used in dyeing and for other purposes.

Blue-throat, a bird (Sylvia suecica) with a tawny breast marked with a skyblue crescent, inhabiting the northern parts of Europe and Asia. It is a bird of passage, and is taken in great numbers in France for the table.

Blue-vitriol. See Blue-stone.

Blue-wing, a genus of American ducks, so called from the colour of the wingcoverts. One species (Querquedula discors) is brought in great quantities to market, the flesh being highly esteemed for its flavour.

Bluffs, the name in America for the steep banks of a stream or lake forming prominent headlands, and often extending inland as plateaus.

Blumenbach (blö'men-bȧh), JOHANN FRIEDRICH, celebrated German naturalist, born 1752, died 1840. He studied at Jena and Göttingen, and wrote on the occasion of his graduation as M.D. a remarkable thesis on the varieties of the human race. He became professor of medicine, librarian, and keeper of the museum at Göttingen in 1778, where he lectured for fifty years. His principal works are the Institutiones Physiologica, long a common text-book; Handbuch der vergleichenden Anatomie (Handbook of Comparative Anatomy), the best treatise that had appeared up to its date; and Collectio Craniorum Diversarum Gentium. The last work, published between 1790 and 1828, gives descriptions and figures of his extensive collection of skulls, still preserved at Göttingen. He advocated the doctrine of the unity of the human species, which he divided into five varieties, Caucasian, Mongolian, Negro, American, and Malay. His anthropological treatises, and the memoirs of his life by Marx and Flourens, were translated into English.

Blun'derbuss, a short gun with a very widle bore, capable of holding a number of slugs or bullets, and intended to do execution at a limited range without exact aim. Blunt, JOHN HENRY, English theological writer, born 1823, died 1884. He held various curacies, and latterly was appointed to the living of Beverston, Gloucestershire.

BOADICEA.

He wrote much, among his chief works being Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theology; Dictionary of Sects, Heresies, &c.; History of the English Reformation; Household Theology; Annotated Book of Common Prayer.

Blunt, JOHN JAMES, English divine, born 1794, died 1855; from 1839 Lady Margaret professor of divinity at Cambridge. His works include articles contributed to the Quarterly Review; Sketch of the Reformation in England; Undesigned Coincidences in the Old and New Testament, an Argument for their Veracity; On the Right Use of the Early Fathers; History of the Church during the First Three Centuries; Sermons; &c.

Boa, a genus of serpents, family Boidæ, having the jaws so constructed that these animals can dilate the mouth sufficiently to swallow bodies thicker than themselves. They are also distinguished by having a hook on each side of the vent; the tail prehensile; the body compressed and largest in the middle, and with small scales, at least on the posterior part of the head. The genus includes some of the largest species of serpents, reptiles endowed with immense muscular power. They seize sheep, deer, &c., and crush them in their folds, after which they swallow the animal whole. The boas are peculiar to the hot parts of South America. The Boa constrictor is not one of the largest members of the genus, rarely exceeding 20 feet in length; but the name boa or boa constrictor is often given popularly to any of the large serpents of similar habits, and so as to include the Pythons of the Old World and the Anaconda and other large serpents of America.

Boab'dil, ABU-ABDULLAH, last Moorish king of Granada, gained the throne in 1481 by expelling his father, Mulei Hassan; and became the vassal of Ferdinand of Aragon. By his tyranny he provoked the hostility of his own subjects, and Ferdinand, taking advantage of the dissensions which prevailed, laid siege to Granada. The Moors made a valiant defence, but Boabdil capitulated, and retired to a domain of the Alpujarras assigned him by the victor. He afterwards passed into Africa, and fell in battle while assisting the King of Fez in an attempt to dethrone the King of Morocco.

Boadice'a, Queen of the Iceni, in Britain, during the reign of Nero. Having been treated in the most ignominious manner by the Romans, she headed a general insurrec

BOAR

tion of the Britons, attacked the Roman settlements, reduced London to ashes, and put to the sword all strangers to the number of 70,000. Suetonius, the Roman general, defeated her in a decisive battle (A.D. 62), and Boadicea, rather than fall into the hands of her enemies, put an end to her own life by poison.

Boar, the male of swine not castrated. The wild hog, the original of the domestic pig, is generally spoken of as the wild boar. See Hog.

Board, a number of persons having the management, direction, or superintendence of some public or private office or trust; also an office under the control of an executive government, the business of which is conducted by officers specially appointed for that purpose.

Board of Admiralty, the officers appointed for the administration of the naval affairs of Britain. The chief of the board is called First Lord. See Admiralty.

Board of Trade, a department of the British government, having wide and important functions respecting the trade and navigation of the kingdom. It is a permanent committee of the privy-council, and is presided over by a member of the cabinet. It is divided into eight departments each having its separate staff: (1) The Commercial Department, whose duties are to advise the treasury and the colonial and foreign offices on matters relating to tariffs and burdens on trade, &c. (2) The Statistical Department, which has to prepare the official volumes of statistics which are periodically issued. It may also be required to prepare special statistical returns for the information of members of parliament, chambers of commerce, or private persons who have occasion to apply. (3) The Railway Department, which has the supervision of railways and railway companies, and which must be supplied with notices of application for railway acts and with plans, before the relative bill can be brought before parliament. Before a line is opened for traffic the permission of the board on the report of an inspector must be got; and on the occurrence of an accident notice must be sent to the department, which is then empowered to take any measures it may deem necessary for the public safety or interest. It also keeps a register of joint-stock companies, of the accounts of insurance companies, and prepares provisional orders relating to gas, water, and tramway companies.

BOAT-BILL.

(4) The Harbour Department, which exer cises a supervision over lighthouses, the seafisheries, pilotage, &c. (5) The Marine Department has to see to the registration, condition, and discipline of merchant ships, to watch over the mercantile marine offices, and to see that the regulations with regard to the engagement of seamen and apprentices are carried out; to examine officers, and make investigations into misconduct and wrecks; and generally to take in hand most of the business thrown upon the board by the various shipping acts. (6) The Financial Department, which has to keep the accounts of the board, controlling the receipts and expenditure. It has also to deal with Greenwich pensions, seamen's savingsbanks and money-orders, the proper distribution of the effects of seamen dying abroad, and the like. (7) The Fisheries Department regulates both the inland and sea fisheries of the country. (8) The Bankruptcy Department appoints official receivers, and generally carries out all the provisions of the law regarding bankruptcy.

The Local Government Board is a department of the British government presided over by a crown-appointed president. Its duties include the supervision and control of sanitary matters, questions of local government and municipal improvements, and the keeping of highways; and the board has further to report upon private bills.

Boat, a small open vessel or water craft usually moved by oars or rowing. The forms, dimensions, and uses of boats are very various, and some of them carry a light sail. The boats belonging to a ship of war are the launch or long-boat, which is the largest, the barge, the pinnace, the yawl, cutters, the jolly-boat, and the gig. The boats belonging to a merchant vessel are the launch or long-boat, before mentioned, the skiff, the jolly-boat or yawl, the stern-boat, the quarter-boat, and the captain's gig. Every British passenger ship is required to carry a number of boats according to the following scale: two boats for every ship of less than 200 tons; three, when 200 and less than 400; four, 400 and less than 600; five, 600 and less than 1000; six, 1000 and less than 1500; seven, 1500 and upwards. One of such boats must in all cases be a long-boat, and one a properly-fitted life-boat. See Rowing, Regatta.

Boat-bill, Cancrōma cochlearia, a South American bird of the family Ardeidæ or herons, about the size of a common fowl,

Boat-fly, Notonecta glauca, an aquatic hemipterous insect which swims on its back; the hind-legs aptly enough resembling oars, the body representing a boat: hence the

name.

Boat'swain (commonly pronounced bo'sn), a warrant-officer in the navy who has charge of the sails, rigging, colours, anchors, cables, and cordage. His office is also to summon the crew to their duty, to relieve the watch, &c. In the merchant service one of the crew who has charge of the rigging and oversees the men.

Bob'bin, a reel or other similar contrivance for holding thread. It is often a cylindrical piece of wood with a head, on which thread is wound for making lace; or a spool with a head at one or both ends, intended to have thread or yarn wound on it, and used in spinning machinery (when it is slipped on a spindle and revolves therewith) and in sewing-machines (applied within the shuttle).

Bobbin-net, a machine-made cotton net, originally imitated from the lace made by means of a pillow and bobbins.

Bob'bio, a small town of N. Italy, prov. Pavia, the seat of a bishop, with an old cathedral, and formerly a celebrated abbey founded by St. Columbanus.

Bob-o-link. See Rice-bunting. Bobruisk, a fortified town of Russia, gov. Minsk. Pop. 31,158.

Boccaccio (bok-kȧt'chō), GIOVANNI, Italian novelist and poet, son of a Florentine merchant, was born, 1313, in Certaldo, a small town in the valley of the Elsa, 20 miles from Florence; died there 1375. He spent some years unprofitably in literary pursuits and the study of the canon law, but in the end devoted himself entirely to literature. He found a congenial atmosphere in Naples, where many men of let ters frequented the court of King Robert, among the number being the great Petrarch. In 1341 Boccaccio fell in love with Maria, an illegitimate daughter of King Robert, who returned his passion with equal ardour, and was immortalized as Fiammetta in many of his best creations. His first work, a romantic love-tale in prose, Filocopo, was written at her command; as was also the Teseide, the first heroic epic in the Italian language, and the first example of the ottava rima.

In 1341 he returned to Florence at his father's command, and during a three years' stay produced three important works,

Fiammetta, all of them connected with his mistress in Naples. In 1344 he returned to Naples, where Giovanna, the granddaughter of Robert, who had succeeded to the throne, received him with distinction. Between 1344 and 1350 most of the stories of the Decameron were composed at her desire or at that of Fiammetta. This work, on which his fame rests, consists of 100 tales represented to have been related in equal portions in ten days by a party of ladies and gentlemen at a country house near Florence while the plague was raging in that city. The stories in this wonderful collection range from the highest pathos to the coarsest licentiousness. They are partly the invention of the author, and partly derived from the fabliaux of medieval French poets and other sources. On the death of his father Boccaccio returned to Florence, where he was greatly honoured, and was sent on several public embassies. Amongst others he was sent to Padua to communicate to Petrarch the tidings of his recall from exile and the restoration of his property. From this time an intimate friendship grew up between them which continued for life. They both contributed greatly to the revival of the study of classical literature, Boccaccio spending much time and money in collecting ancient manuscripts. In 1373 he was chosen by the Florentines to occupy the chair which was established for the exposition of Dante's Divina Commedia. His lectures continued till his death. Among his other works may be mentioned Filostrato, a narrative poem; Il Ninfale Fiesolano, a love story; Il Corbaccio, ossia Il Labirinto d'Amore, a coarse satire on a Florentine widow; and several Latin works. The first edition of the Decameron appeared without date or place, but is believed to have been printed at Florence in 1469 or 1470. The first edition with a date is that of Valdarfer, Venice, 1471; what is, perhaps, the only existing perfect copy of this was sold in London in 1812 for £2260.

Boccage (bok-äzh), MARIE ANNE DU, a French poetess, much admired and extravagantly praised by Voltaire, Fontenelle, Clairaut and others; born 1710, died 1802. Her writings comprise an imitation of Paradise Lost; the Death of Abel; the Amazons, a tragedy; and a poem called the Columbiad.

Bocca Tigris, or BOGUE, the embouchure of the principal branch of the Chu Kiang, or Canton river, China.

BOCCHERINI

Boccherini (bok-ker-e'ne), LUIGI, an Italian composer of instrumental music, was born in 1740 at Lucca, died at Madrid 1805. His compositions consist of symphonies, sestets, quintets, quartets, trios, duets, and sonatas for the violin, violoncello, and pianoforte. He never composed anything for the theatre; and of church compositions we find but one, his Stabat Mater.

Bochart (bo-shär), SAMUEL, French theologian and oriental scholar, born at Rouen 1599, died at Caen 1661, where he was Protestant clergyman. His chief works are his Geographia Sacra (1646), and his Hierozoicon, or treatise on the animals of the Bible (1663).

Bochnia (boh'ni-a), a town of Austria, in Galicia, gov. of Lemberg, 25 miles E.S. E. of Cracow; extensive mines yielding gypsum, zinc, and rock-salt. Pop. 8501.

Bochold (bol'olt), a town of Prussia, prov. of Westphalia, on the Aa; cotton-spinning and weaving, &c. Pop. 10,576.

Bochum (boh'um), a Prussian town, prov. of Westphalia, 5 miles E.N.E. of Essen; manufactories of iron, steel, hardwares, &c. Pop. 40,767.

Bock, BOCKBIER, a variety of German beer made with more malt and less hops than ordinary German beer, and therefore sweeter and stronger.

Bock'enheim (-him), town of Germany, forming almost a suburb of Hamburg; flourishing manufactures of machinery, &c. Pop. 17,457.

Böckh (beuk), PHILIPP AUGUST, an eminent German classical antiquary, born at Carlsruhe 1785, died at Berlin 1867. He was educated at Carlsruhe and Halle, and obtained in 1811 the chair of ancient literature in the University of Berlin, where he remained for the rest of his life. He opened a new era in philology and archæology by setting forth the principle that their study ought to be an historical method intended to reproduce the whole social and political life of any given people during a given period. Among his chief works are an edition of Pindar (1811-22); The Public Economy of the Athenians, 1817, translated into English and French; Investigations into the Weights, Coins, and Measures of Antiquity, 1838; and Documents concerning the Maritime Affairs of Attica, 1840. The great Corpus Inscriptionum Græcarum was begun by him with the intention of giving in it every Greek inscription known in print or manuscript.

BODLE.

Bocland, BOCKLAND, or BOOK-LAND, one of the original English modes of tenure of manor-land which was held by a short and simple deed under certain rents and free services. This species of tenure has given rise to the modern freeholds.

Bode (bo'de), JOHN ELERT, German astronomer, born 1747, died 1826. His best works are his Astronomical Almanac and his large Celestial Atlas (Himmelsatlas), giving a catalogue of 17,240 stars (12,000 more than in any former chart). — Bode's Law is the name given to an arithmetical formula, previously made known by Kepler and Titius of Wittenberg, expressing ap proximately the distances of the planets from the sun. It assumes the series 0, 3, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96, &c., each term after the second being double the preceding term; to each term 4 is added, producing the series 4, 7, 10, 14, 28, 56, 100, &c. These numbers are, with the exception of 28, roughly proportional to the distances between the planets and the sun. The law has no theoretical foundation.

Boden-see. See Constance, Lake of

Bo'denstedt (-stet), FRIEDRICH MARTIN, German poet and miscellaneous writer, born in 1819. Having obtained an educational appointment at Tiflis he published a work on the peoples of the Caucasus (1848), and A Thousand and One Days in the East, which were very successful. In 1854 he was appointed professor of Slavic at Munich, and in 1858 was transferred to the chair of old English. He had since been a theatrical director at Meiningen, had travelled in the U. States, &c. Among the best of his poetical works are the Songs of Mirza-Schaffy, purporting to be translations from the Persian, but really original, which have passed through over 100 editions. He translated Shakspere's Sonnets, and in conjunction with other writers issued a new translation of Shakspere's works. He died in 1892.

Bodin (bo-dan), JEAN, a French political writer, born in 1530 or 1529, died 1596. He studied law at Toulouse, delivered lectures on jurisprudence there, and afterwards went to Paris and practised. His great work De la République (1576) has been characterized as the ablest and most remarkable treatise on the philosophy of government and legislation produced from the time of Aristotle to that of Montesquieu.

Bodle, a copper coin formerly current in Scotland, of the value of two pennies Scots, or the sixth part of an English penny. The