[194

Automatic inspection of railways. The precise methods of modern physical research are fast invading the various fields of practical science, and enabling us to be more and more independent of guesswork every year. Nothing illustrates this more forcibly than Mr. P. H. Dudley's dynamometer car, which is drawn from one end to the other of any railway, and, as it goes, records automatically every imperfection existing in the track, and at the end of the trip presents a long roll of paper which is a complete telltale in regard to the exact state of the road. Every bad joint, every defective rail, every lack of correct alignment, either vertical or horizontal, is shown upon the diagram in such a manner as not only to indicate the precise location of the defect, but at the same time to suggest the remedy. The dynamometer car has been employed upon a great many of our more important railroads, with the most satisfactory results. - -G. L. V. [195

Railway management as a science.- Art first, and science afterwards, has been the rule in all technological pursuits, to which railways are no exception. We are fast accumulating sufficient data to show that there is such a thing as a science of railway operation; and just as soon as this fact is recognized, this science will find a place in our technical schools. The Archiv für eisenbahnwesen, a periodical issued by the Prussian ministry of public works, announces that there will be in the winter semester of the universities of Berlin and Breslau, courses of lectures on railroad operation, including station and train service, signalling, organization and duties of employees, and railway mechanism; and also lectures on railway administration, including the arrangement of rates and fares, the discussion of wages, and railway statistics. A third course will be on railway law, and a fourth on railway transportation as a branch of political economy. -G. L. V. [196

Congelation of solvents.- In experiments upon the point of congelation of water, formic acid, acetic acid, benzol, nitro-benzol, and ethylen dibromide, M. Raoult tried the action of each solvent upon two hundred other substances. A solution of one grm. substance in 100 grms. of the solvent gave results from which the following law was deduced: A molecule of any substance whatever, when dissolved in, 100 molecules of any liquid of a different nature, lowers the point of congelation of the liquid 0°.62,

-a value nearly constant for different solvents. (Comptes rendus, xcv. 1030.) C. F. M.

[199

Formation of active oxygen. Results obtained by Moritz Traube show that ozone is not produced by hydrogen in statu nascendi. The hypothesis of Hoppe-Seyler, that chemical processes which take place within the bodies of animals are identical with those resulting from putrefaction, and depend upon the presence of ozone produced by nascent hydrogen, must therefore be incorrect. In support of this hypothesis, Hoppe-Seyler asserted that nascent hydrogen from palladium-hydrogen would convert oxygen into its active condition. The author finds that hydrogen is not evolved from the alloy at ordinary temperatures, and that instead of ozone, in presence of water, hydrogen peroxide is formed. Other results seem to indicate that hydrogen peroxide is a product of reduction rather than of oxidation. (Berichte deutsch. chem. gesellsch., xv. 2421.) [200

C. F. M.

66

Influence of pressure on the speed of chemical action. Prof. R. B. Warder made the following remarks: Menschutkin 1 has recently published his experiments on the decomposition of tertiary amylacetate by heating in sealed tubes. At 155° C., while the pressure was gradually increased by the formation of amylene, the speed of the reaction was found to increase until about half the ether was decomposed. Menschutkin's graphical representation of the progress of the reaction has a point of inflection at this stage. This fully accords with the theory of 'action of mass' if we assume that this reaction, like many others, is promoted by pressure.

If the speed of the reaction is directly proportional to the pressure, and if the increase in pressure is proportional to the amylene generated, the course of the reaction should be represented by the equation, นก log m -uo

log

U = At. m- น

Where u is the quantity of ether still present at any moment, to be eventually decomposed within the limit of the reaction, u, is the initial value of u; t is the time of action; m-uo is the ratio of initial to final pressure; and A is a constant, dependent upon the actual pressure, as well as the absolute coefficient of speed.

m

By making m=1.01uo, and A= 0.04, we obtain an equation which pretty closely agrees with Menschutkin's curve. (Ohio mech. inst.; sect. chem. phys.; meeting Jan. 18.) [201

(Organic.)

Caffeine, theobromine, xanthine, and guanine. - In an extended investigation upon the constitution of these substances, Emil Fischer examined many of their derivatives and decomposition-products. Ŏxidation of caffeine with hydrochloric acid and potassium chlorate gave methylurea and amalic acid. This acid, without doubt, was formed directly from dimethylalloxan, in a manner analogous to the formation of alloxantine by heating alloxan with hydrochloric acid. By oxidation with nitric acid, amalic acid was converted into dimethylalloxantine, which formed cholestrophan by further oxidation. In the oxidation of theobromine, the resulting methylalloxan was immediately changed into the corresponding alloxantine, which gave methylparabanic acid by oxidation. Methylurea also was identified as a product of the oxidation of theobromine. As the decomposition-products of xanthine, alloxan Ber. chem. gesellsch. xv., 2512-2518.

was

recognized by conversion into alloxantine, and urea was found in the mother liquors. From bromcaffeine the amido-, ethoxy-, and hydroxy-derivatives were prepared; and from the bromine addition-product of hydroxycaffeine, diethoxyhydroxy- and dimethoxyhydroxycaffeine. When treated with hydrochloric acid, diethoxyhydroxycaffeine was converted into apocaffein, which formed caffuric acid, C6 H9 N3 07, by boiling with water. By treatment with cold hydriodic acid, caffuric acid gave hydrocaffuric, from which, by decomposition with barium hydrate, methylhydantoin, methylurea, and carbonic dioxide were obtained. The formation of methylyldantoin is regarded by the author of great importance in explaining the constitution of caffeine. This substance must contain beside the methylurea residue the carbon-nitrogen group of methylhydantoin. In the preparation of apocaffeine, the formation of another substance, hypocaffeine, was observed, which gave caffoline, C, H, N3 O2 when warmed with basic acetate of lead. Caffoline gave methylurea by reduction and by oxidation with potassium ferrocyanide, potassium permanganate, and chromic acid, respectively methyloxamic acid, dimethyloxamid, and cholestrophan. The structure of caffoline, based upon the method of its formation and its decomposition-products, would be analogous to that of cholestrophan,

---

Some derivatives of morphine. That morphine contains at least one phenyl-hydroxyl group, was shown by M. Grimaux, who converted it into codeine by heating it with sodium ethylate and methyliodide. Codethyline (ethyl morphine) was formed when ethyl iodide took part in this reaction; and by the use of alkyl iodides, in general, a series of derivatives was suggested. Ethylen dimorphine was obtained with ethylen iodide. When sulphuric acid, in excess, was added to a solution of morphine in glacial acetic acid with a small quantity of methyal or methylenaceto-chlorhydrine, a purple color appeared in the solution, possibly due to the formation of the base CH2CH3NO3 (methylen morphine). — (Ann. chim. phys., 27, 273.) C. F. M. [206

METALLURGY.

Treatment of copper ores at Spenceville, Cal. The ore, which is fine-grained pyrites in a sort of chlorite slate, is broken into small lumps to prepare it for roasting before being hoisted to the surface. It is then dumped on a few sticks around a loose brick flue, layers of brush are put on at intervals with the ore, salt is distributed through the pile, tank residue placed on the top to exclude the air, and the heap is then fired. The period of roasting lasts six months. There are fifty leach-vats, with a capacity of 120 tons of roasted ore; the leaching is hastened by boiling with steam, and the copper is precipitated by scrap-iron. Forty-two tons of 85% copper cement are shipped monthly; eight months' supply of ore is always kept on hand. There are now 12,000 tons roasting. (Min. and sc. press, Nov. 18, 1882.) R. H. R. [207 Bull's process for iron-smelting. — This process consists in charging the iron-ore and flux, usually limestone, without any solid fuel, gas being used instead; highly heated air is also introduced in sufficient quantity to burn about ten per cent of the gas, and to give high enough heat to melt the charge. The gases rising through the ore are carbonic oxide and hydrogen, with the nitrogen from the air. The usual zone of gasification of the iron-blast furnace is wanting, leaving only the zone of reduction, carburization, and fusion. — (Min. and sc. press, Nov. 18, 1882.) R. H. R. [208

GEOLOGY.

Surface geology of the vicinity of Baltimore. The principal features of the Baltimore area, according to P. R. Uhler, are expressed, first, in the hard rocks of the archaean age; second, in broad beds of softer Jurassic rocks; and, third, in the superficial drift materials. The first series includes the Laurentian system, the chloritic and serpentinic series, and the overlying mica schists and quartzites. These ancient terranes are exposed in plateaus, which

have been shaped by erosion, and have a height of from 300 to 500 feet. Although, in general, similar to the archaean of other regions, yet they are especially rich in hornblendic and pyroxenic rocks; while the highly feldspathic varieties are confined to a few localities, and are usually accessible only at low levels. Baltimore lies on the eastern margin of the broad archaean belt, extending from Canada to Georgia, and having the north-north-east trend of the Atlantic seaboard. It is unbroken westward to the triassic area, and is involved in a series of wellmarked folds which attained their maximum development in the Jurassic period.

In the Baltimore area no formations intervene between the archaean and the Jurassic; and the last is represented only by its highest member, the Wealden. It reaches from Elkton, in Cecil Co., to beyond Washington, D. C., with an accessible breadth of about thirty miles. It rests directly upon the archaean, and is overlaid at various points by the cretaceous, tertiary, and post-tertiary; although in the vicinity of Baltimore it is covered only by the drift deposits. The thickness of the Wealden is not less than 500 feet, consisting chiefly of sandstone with beds of clay and gravel, all derived from the archaeand containing vegetable fossils in abundance; although only one animal has been found, the Astrodon Johnstonii Leidy, a reptile supposed to be related to the iguanodon. - (Johns Hopk. univ. circ., Feb., 1883.) W. O. C. [209

an,

Lithology.

The hornblendic granite of Quincy, Mass.Mr. Dodge's paper is valuable as showing in a convenient form the distribution of the granite and its adjacent rocks. The only other thing new in the paper is the assumption of two different granites in the area mapped, for which he advances no evidence, although other observers have in general regarded them as local modifications of each other. The paper is, moreover, by no means an adequate representation of what is known regarding the 'Relations of the Menevian argillites and associated rocks at Braintree and vicinity;' for the author does not show the relation of the known primordial argillite to any other rock (work that had been done before by others), but only the relations of some which he has assumed to be primordial. That these argillites are all of the same age, there is good reason to doubt; for in the Boston basin certain of these are found associated with conglomerates, unconformably overlying other argillites, and holding pebbles of the latter. These two different classes of argillites differ from one another in their lithological characters; and that difference, coupled with the association with conglomerates, occurs in Mr. Dodge's so-called Menevian argillites. — (Amer. journ. sc., Jan., 1883.) M. E. W. [210

Meteorites.

The Lodran meteorite. - The microscopic and general characters of this meteorite which fell at Lodran, India, Oct. 1, 1868, were quite fully described by Tschermak in 1870 (Sitzungsb. akad. wissensch. Wien, 1870, lxi.). Dr. Stan. Meunier finds, on studying a section, that it appears to be composed of bronzite, olivine, pyrrhotite, chromite, and grains of metallic iron. If, however, a chip is heated and then suddenly plunged into mercury, the silicates fall to pieces, while the metallic portion is seen to form a very fine network or sponge-like mass. This network is the same as, but finer than, that formed by the iron in the celebrated Pallas meteorite, to which this is allied. Dr. Meunier regards the Lodran meteorite as a true sandstone, having a metallic cement. The

M. E. W.

metallic portion was evidently posterior to the accumulation of the silicate grains, which must, before their cementation, have formed a true meteoric sand. He does not regard water action necessary to produce such a sand, but thinks, rather, that it was produced by volcanic action. (Comptes rendus, xcv. 1176.) [211 Two Japanese meteorites. - Dr. Edward Divers describes two meteoric stones supposed to have fallen in Japan about 150 years ago. They are covered largely with the thin black fused coating common in meteorites, but in the interior are light gray in color, earthy, porous, somewhat soft, and interspersed with particles of iron and pyrohotite (troilite). The chemical analysis is as follows:Sp. gr., 3.62

O. Fe.

Si,

Al.

1.00

Na..

0.72

33.18

26.13

Sn.

0.15

C.

2.15

Ni.

Co.

Ca.

This is the common composition of the chondritic meteorites. - (Trans. asiat. soc. Japan, x. 199.) M. E. W. [212 The meteorite of Mocs. Attention is called by Mr. E. Döll to the form and surface of this meteorite, thinking that it fell in a region that with other meteorites forms a remarkable zone of falls. (Verhandl. k.-k. geol. reichsanst., 1882, 159.) M. E. W. [213

MINERALOGY.

Mispickle.-As a result of simultaneous crystallographic and chemical investigations, A. Arzruni and C. Baerwald have shown that the prismatic angle of this mineral varies, and is accompanied by a corresponding variation in sulphur. For an increase of 0.00001 in the axis ǎ there is an increase of 0.0236 % S, the length of the axis a in the varieties investigated varying from 0.67092 to 0.68964, and the sulphur content from 18.051 % to 22.472 %. Thus the mineral does not possess a constant composition, but varies in such a way as to have a definite effect upon the prismatic angle. (Zeitschr. kryst., vii. 337.) s. L. P. [214 Minerals from Juliane-haab, southern Greenland. - The following minerals have been described and analyzed by Joh. Lorenzen:

Microcline feldspar.

Arfredsonite. This occurs in dark cleavable masses, hardness 5.5, G. 3.44, showing brilliant prismatic cleavage at an angle of 124° 22′; also grayish and of a more decomposed appearance. Chemical analysis of the dark cleavable variety showed that the iron was nearly all present as protoxide. The analysis agreed with the formula 11 RSI O3 + R2 O3, showing that the mineral holds a position among the amphiboles which contain a small quantity of sesquioxides. Ainigmatite. A mineral resembling the above, with prismatic angle 114°, G. 3.80, is regarded as a distinct species, but no analysis is given.

Aegirine. This mineral occurs with arfredsonite, and is to be distinguished by the striations parallel to the prism; prismatic angle 86° 58', hardness 5.5-6, and G. 3.63. Chemical analysis showed that the iron exists mostly as sesquioxide, and gave the formula Na, R" Riv, Si O25; or,—

As will be seen, the mineral is a little too basic for a bi-silicate.

Sodalite. This mineral is always colored green, arising from inclusions of arfredsonite. The crystals are dodecahedral, usually about the size of a pea; hardness 5.5-6, G. 2.31. The mineral decomposed by acids, and filtered from the undecomposed inclusions, 2 Na Cl. gave upon analysis the formula3 Na, Al, Si, O..

Nepheline. This occurs in hexagonal prisms, seldom larger than a hazel-nut, terminated by a pinacoid; also massive, accompanied by the foregoing minerals. G. of crystals, 2.60; massive, 2.63. The results of analysis gave the formula R', Al1⁄2 Si2 O×; which, although once accepted, has now given place to the more complicated R', Al Sig 034.

The

Endialyte occurs crystallized and massive. crystals show a great number of planes. Hardness 5.5, G. 2.85. The author has determined the oxides of the cerium metals, amounting together to 2.27 p. c. He also finds an unusually large quantity of Na, O=15.90 p. c., and 1.91 p. c. Cl. The formula deduced from the analysis varies from that of Rammelsberg, and the large percentages of Nag O and Cl may be due to inclusions of sodalite.

Lievrite. This mineral as occurring in Greenland is described for the first time. It occurs both massive and crystalline, the crystals much striated, and terminations usually wanting. Lustre, metallic; color, black; hardness, 6; and G. 4.05. The results of analysis gave Si O, 29.30, Fe, O3 20.30, Fe O 33.50, Mn O 1.97, Ca O 13.71, H2 O 1.90 100.68, giving the formula,

2

2

2

=

+ H2O; or, H Ca Fe", Feiv Si, O9.

2

2 Fe" Si 04 Ca2 Si 04 Fei, Si O Lepidolite. This occurs in white shining laminae, of hardness 2.5, G. 2.81. The analysis is peculiar in containing no fluorine, a very large quantity of alkalies, and only one-half the usual quantity of alumina. It does not agree closely with any definite formula. Steenstrupine. Under this name a new mineral is described, of a brown color, hardness 4, G. 3.38. It occurs crystallized and massive. The crystals are much curved, and are referred to the hexagonal The composition is complicated, as will system. be seen from the following analysis: Ta2 05 0.97, Si O2 27.95, Th O2 7.09, Fe2 039.71, Al 03 2.41, Ce, 03 10.66, (La Di), O3 17.04, Mn O4.20, Ca O 3.09, Na 07.98, H2O7.28 98.38. Disregarding the Ta Os, these values agree quite closely with the following formula: Na, R" Riv (Si Th), O13, 3H, O. The author, however, making use of the old form of the oxides (Th O, Ce O, etc.), could see no relation between the metals present, and does not attempt to deduce any formula, reserving that till more analyses are made. (Min. mag., v. 49.) S. L. P.

=

METEOROLOGY.

-

[215

Popular weather prognostics. A paper by R. Abercromby and W. Marriott has been read before the English meteorological society, which "explains over a hundred prognostics, by showing that they make their appearance in definite positions relative to the areas of high and low atmospheric pressure shown in synoptic charts. The method adopted not only explains many which have not hitherto been accounted for, but enables the failure, as well as the success, of any prognostic, to be traced by following the history of the weather of the day on a synoptic chart. The forms discussed are: cyclones, anticyclones, wedge-shaped and straight isobars. weather in the last two is now described for the first

The

Observations at Geneva and Great St. Bernard. The meteorological résumé for 1881 by M. Kammermann is an admirable model, worthy of imitation by those who publish similar observations. The diurnal variations in temperature and vapor tension are expressed analytically by Bessel's formula. The amplitude of barometric changes at Geneva exceeded that at St. Bernard by 1.14 mm., while the rainfall at the latter station was more than one-third greater than that at the former. It would be an improvement if the meteorological year adopted coincided with the civil year instead of beginning with December. (Arch. sc. phys. nat., Dec. 15, 1882.) [217

W. U.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

Depths of the sea. — - Dr. Georg v. Boguslawski has prepared the following table of the greatest trustworthy depths found, up to 1882, in the several oceans and seas:

Nelson's explorations in the Yukon delta. The long residence of Mr. E. W. Nelson at St. Michaels, Norton Sound, Alaska, and the large collections obtained there by him for the National museum, are matters generally known, not only to those immediately interested, but also to the general public. His report has been anticipated with much interest. Unfortunately a too enthusiastic application to study, on his return, acting on a constitution perhaps somewhat weakened by past hardships, produced symptoms which rendered a change of scene and climate imperative as a preventive of worse evils. Mr. Nelson is now recuperating in Colorado, and is still working on his report, which will appear among the professional papers of the signal-corps of the U. S. army, but will be somewhat delayed. During his service as signal-corps observer at St. Michaels, he took part in several long sledge expeditions over little-known parts of the Yukon delta, and was able to gather a large amount of information on the geography of an area in regard to which no authentic data are on record. This information is, of course, of an approximate nature only; but, such as it is, it forms an important and valuable addition to our knowledge. Most of Mr. Nelson's notes were placed in the hands of the authorities of the U. S. census, and form the larger proportion of the new information contained in the map of Alaska lately issued by that office. Pending the publication of his complete report, he has prepared a brief account of the most important of his expeditions made in December and January, 1878-79, which has just appeared in the proceedings of the Royal geographical society of London (November number), together with a map embodying his additions to the geography of the Yukon delta. journey in question extended from St. Michaels along the coast to the trading-post of Andreievski, at the northernmost mouth of the Yukon, thence by the Kusilvak mountain, across the delta to the vicinity of Cape Rumiantzoff, then near the coast and parallel with it to Cape Vancouver, and around to the mouth of the Kuskokvim River, the western bank of which was traversed some fifty miles northward; then the party struck across the portage to the southern bend of the Yukon, which was descended to Andreievski, after which the original route was followed to St. Michaels. Among the more important features developed were the form of the coast about Cape Rumiantzoff; the number and approximate position of the streams and inlets entering the coast between that point and the mouth of the Kuskokvim; the insulation of Cape Vancouver, which forms part of a large island separated by the large, newly named Baird Inlet, and two broad but probably shallow channels from the mainland; and the approximate location of numerous inland lakes, streams, and villages of natives. Numerous ethnological details appear in the narrative. The island off Cape Vancouver has appropriately been named Nelson Island, and a bay north of it Hazen Bay, after the present enlightened head of the signalcorps, who has done so much to promote research and exploration in these northern regions. W. H. D. [220

The

(North America.)

This

March of the centre of our population. question is discussed by L. Simonin on the basis of our census-reports; of which he says, "Four or five years are given to discussing the data, formulating the results, and illustrating them with splendid maps, making a number of magnificent folio volumes, which are distributed very generously.' After describing the exceptionally rapid growth of population, and the westward advance of its centre at the rate of fifty miles a decade from the Chesapeake in 1790 to Cincinnati in 1880, he asks, "When will the centre of population agree with the centre of surface, and what will the population be then?" The answer is: in 320 years, or in 2200 A.D., this change will be accomplished, with a total of 1,600,000,000 souls, more than the present estimated population of the world. There is, of course, much chance of error in the calculation. It was objected, that Africa might some day turn away the tide of emigration from the United States; but M. Simonin thinks it will not be Africa's turn till America is filled, and that it will never offer the opportunities found here. It was further objected, that Chinese immigration might vitiate the calculations. M. Simonin answers, that this source of increase has been but small, and is now stopped by law. Emigration from the United States is not considered sufficiently probable to affect the result. (Bull. soc. géogr. Paris, 1882, 557.) W. M., D. [221

(Europe.)

Finland.-Max Buch prefixes an historical account of the political condition of Finland, with a brief description of the country. On the north-west, where highest, two peaks rise to about 2,000 feet altitude; thence to the south-east the country descends, the heights generally wooded, and the valleys well cultivated. The numerous lakes are mostly narrow, and are dotted over with countless little wooded islands. Of these, Lake Saima serves as a type, extending from latitude 61° to 64°, and yet often no wider than an ordinary river. Besides these larger lakes, there are countless smaller ponds, often separated only by narrow necks of land. The streams are rapid, with numerous falls; those of the Imatra, the outlet of Lake Saima, being renowned. The shore-line is deeply indented, giving many harbors, which are further protected by a fringe of plentiful islands. The climate is relatively mild, the average temperature of Abo, on the southern coast, being 4.6° C., and that of the northern coast -2.6° C. In climate and vegetation Finland differs less from Italy than from southern Greenland, though in the latitude of the last-named country. The population is about 2,060,000, with 40,000 more women than men. (Ausland, 1882, 910.) W. M. D.

[222

Hungarian census. - Tables and charts prepared by Ignaz Hátsek from the census of 1880 show a total population, under the Hungarian crown, of 15,642,000, with 236,000 fewer males than females (1,000 to 1,031); a total area of 324,000 kilometres; and an average of 48 inhabitants to the □ kilometre, an average increase of 1.4 per cent since 1870. One-half the population belong to the Roman-catholic church; next come the Greek oriental, the reformed, the Greek catholic, and the Augsburg evangelical. Hungarian is spoken by four-tenths of the population, CroatoServian and Rumanian by one-seventh each, German and Slovak by one-eighth. - (Peterm. mittheil.. 1882, 447.) W. M. D. [223

(Asia.)