and on the origin of valley lakes, with especial reference to the lakes of the northern Alps, coming to the conclusion that glaciers have not, and can not, cut out deep lake basins, although they may effect considerable general surface - erosion. Differential motions within the ice are regarded as consuming nearly all the gravitative and other force applied to the mass; so that an effective erosive motion of ice on bed-rock is small, and especially so in hollows where the motion is much retarded. The ice rather than the rock will yield when a stone is held between the two. Much rock-flour, washed away by the subglacial streams, may come from material carried down from surface-moraines. The author denies the force of Ramsay's argument that certain lakes cannot be explained save by ice-action, and thinks that certain possible causes were not sufficiently considered. Many alpine lakes are not at all where they should be, if formed by glaciers; and among the causes that may aid their formation are subsidence from underground solution, which recalls Playfair's old suggestion to account for Lake Geneva. This may be further aided by the simple weight of the ancient ice aiding to break down such undermined districts. Dislocations and folds, moraines, land-slides, and diluvial barriers, are also considered. Several special cases are referred to with some detail. (Quart. journ. geol. soc., 1883, 62, 73.) W. M. D. [831 Changes in the Mediterranean climate. - Dr. Th. Fischer, already known for his original studies in this direction, presents a brief statement of further work as supplementary to Tchihatcheff's entertaining lecture before the British association last August (v. Proc. roy, geogr. soc., 1882). His argument is based on the decline of population, shown by the numerous ruins in now desert regions of the northern Sahara, as well as in Asia Minor and farther east; on the barrenness of districts formerly cultivated, as is shown by the remains of irrigation-dams stretching across dry river-channels (wadis); on the occurrence in the Algerian desert of flint chippings covered by a thin gypsum layer, evidently the deposit of a spring, though the region is now wholly dry; and on the frequent occurrence of lightning-tubes in the dry sands, implying former frequent thunder-storms. In Alge

ria, the recorded annual rainfall from 1838 to 1849 averaged 800 mm.; from 1850 to 1862, 770 mm.; from 1863 to 1876, only 639 mm. The deforesting of the country is regarded as having aided this decrease. Furthermore, the absence of camels from old monuments in Egypt, the former occurrence of elephants in the northern Sahara, and use of horses and oxen in crossing the now desert region, all bear witness to the same general decrease of rainfall. (Peterm. mitth., 1883, 1.) W. M. D. [832

GEOGRAPHY.

(Arctic.)

Aboriginal population of northern America. — A recently issued report on the Indians of the Dominion of Canada, together with the information collected by the tenth census of the United States relating to Alaska, affords the means of approximating to the aboriginal population of that part of North America, north of the boundary-line of the United States, as it existed in 1860. The Indian population of British Columbia, Manitoba (including the Northwest Territory), Athabaska, and Rupert's Land, being the regions where governmental supervision is nonexistent or comparatively recent, is put at 78,264. Athabaska and Rupert's Land contain about 6,000, the remainder being nearly equally divided between the other two districts. In the older provinces,

where the whites and aborigines have long been in contact, there are 32,241 Indians. Ontario has 17,126; Quebec, 11,089; Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and Prince Edward's Island divide the remainder. There is an increase, in the total number, of 2,783 over that of last year. There are, of the total Indian population, 81,634 reported as living on reservations or under supervision.

In south-eastern Alaska, 6,725 Indians are reported; Cook's Inlet, Kadiak, and Prince William Sound are estimated to contain 1,028. The Kuskokwim valley is alloted 147; and the Yukon basin, 2,226. These latter figures are probably under-estimates; but the total arrived at is 10,126.

Of the Orarian or Eskimo population of the shores of arctic British America no enumeration is yet possible. From Labrador to the Mackenzie mouth, probably not less than 6,000 are scattered in various localities. In Alaska there are 2,214 Aleuts. Of Innuit, properly so-called, there are estimated to be 17,488, which is likely to prove excessive, and thus in the total to correct the supposed under-estimate of the Indian population. Of these, about 3,000 are assigned to the Arctic coast; about 2,000 to Cook's Inlet and Kadiak; 7,500 to Bristol Bay and the Kuskokwim delta; and 3,300 to the Yukon delta. Taken together, this would give 25,702 Orarians, and 120,631 Indians; or 146,333 aborigines for the whole area. As estimation enters into the figures in several places, it may be said in round numbers, that the region probably contains about 150,000 aboriginal inhabitants, or 1 to 65 kilometres. -W. H. D. 1833

(Asia.)

Eastern Turkestan. — K. Himly's translation of the Si yu shui tao ki (Notes on the water-courses of the western district), a Chinese work written in 1824, is continued, but not yet concluded. The present number gives statistical description of the course and length of the Kyzyl, Yarkand, and other rivers, and numerous general and etymological notes. —(Zeitschr. f. erdk. Berlin, xvii. 401.) W. M. D.

BOTANY. (Physiological.)

[834

Holdfasts in Podostemaceae. It is well known that the river-weeds possess organs by which they cling to loose stones much as Fuci do. Warming calls attention to the presence of root-hairs on these and many other kinds of holdfasts, and he proposes to bring the various sorts under a single designation, namely, Haptera. While the term may prove useful, it must be remembered that under it are comprised at least two unlike plant-members. As they fulfil the same office, namely, clinging, they are physiologically similar, although morphologically unlike. - (Botan. zeit., March 22.) G. L. G.

(835

Fern distribution in the United States. — The ferns of the United States now number 164 species (representing 32 genera), an increase of 39 in the last eight years. It is probable that the number is still by no means complete, and that others may be expected especially from the mountains bordering the Mexican boundary, and from the peninsula of Florida. Mr. Davenport gives a list of the known species, and their distribution among the states and territories. From his tables it appears that New York takes the lead in the number of species (52) that are credited to it, followed by California (48, with 4 others in doubt), Arizona (47, and 3 in doubt), Florida (47, and 2 doubtful), Michigan (47), Vermont (45), Pennsylvania (42, and 2 doubtful), Massachusetts (42), Kentucky (41, and 2 doubtful), Arkansas and Connecticut (41), etc. Six of the genera and twenty-four species are found only in Florida; one genus (Schizaea) is represented within the United States only in New Jersey; and, on the other hand, Pteris aquilina occurs in at least thirty-nine, and Asplenium Trichomanes and Adiantum pedatum in thirty-five out of the forty-eight states and territories. -(Journ. Amer. phil. soc., Feb., 1883.) s. w. [838

--

Araceae. - Dr. Engler continues his contributions supplementary to his monograph of the Araceae in De Candolle's Monographia, proposing two new monotypic genera, Synandrospadix, from the Argentine Republic; and Oligogynium, from tropical Africa. He approves of Baillon's adoption of Richardia as the older name of the Rubiaceous genus now generally known as Richardsonia, and follows him in the consequent restoration of Sprengel's name, Zantedeschia, for the 'Calla lily' (Richardia Aethiopica) and its congeners. (Engler's bot. jahrb., March, 1883.) s. w.

[839

(Fossil plants.) Relations of Lepidodendron, Sigillaria, and Stigmaria. A new memoir by M. Renault answers the critical remarks of Prof. Williamson and Dr. Hartog of Manchester, against the conclusions reached in his Cours de botanique fossile (see p. 397). The English anatomists find no marked difference in the composition of the wood of Sigillaria and Lepidodendron, which is, in both, of a single centripetal zone of tissue. Both are, therefore, true lycopodiaceous or cryptogamous plants. M. Renault considers the wood of Sigillaria as composed of two distinct zones; — an internal, of centripetal growth; an external, centrifugal, with distinct agglomeration of tracheae of the woody cords of the leaves, centripetal in traversing the inner zone of the wood, centrifugal in passing through the secondary, which covers the trachean mass. This double woody zone relates Sigillaria to the Cycadeae or to the dicotyledonous gymnosperins. This last opinion has been already sustained by Brongniart. (Consid. rapp. Lepid. Sigill. et Stigm.. Paris, Masson, 1883.) L. L.

[840

Tertiary flora of Australia. - From observations made at Dalton, New South Wales (eocene horizon), and in the Travertine of Hobart Town, Tasmania (miocene), Baron von Ettingshausen finds that the tertiary flora of Australia is far more nearly allied to

the tertiary floras of the other continents than to the living flora of Australia. It appears not improbable, therefore, that the numerous forms which characterize the latter have been developed out of pliocene or post-tertiary forms of plants, thus far unknown to geologists. The existence at the present time of characteristic non-Australian genera in the flora of the continent is traced back to the tertiary period, in whose deposits remains of such forms as Fagus, Tabernaemontana, and Elaeocarpus, have been discovered. (Geol. mag., April, 1883.) A. H. [841 ZOOLOGY.

Protozoa.

Development of Volvox.- Miss S. G. Foulke presented a communication upon the development of Volvox globator and its separated gonidia or reproductive spores. It was stated that in one case some of the gonidia freed themselves from the protoplasmic envelope, breaking the connecting filaments, and swam away. In some instances these free gonidia passed into an encysted state; in others, attached themselves by the remains of the filament to other substances, thus using it as a footstalk, and presented the appearance of Vorticella. Many of the free gonidia remained in a free swimming state. Others remained in the Volvox, developed in Amoebae, and emerged, after enveloping and digesting some of the neighboring gonidia. These Amoebae afterwards took the form of Amoeba radiosa, and then returned to their former state, seeming to have the power of using either shape at pleasure. As the parent Volvox belongs to the microscopic Algae, or water-plants, the change of its spores to a form in all respects apparently identical with an animalcule furnishes another interesting illustration of the approximation of the lowest animal and vegetable organisms. (Acad. nat. sc. Philad.; meeting Feb. 20.)

[842

Dimorphism in fossil Foraminifera. — MM. Schlumberger and Munier-Chalmas find that certain foraminiferal forms otherwise undistinguishable from each other, except in the matter of size, and therefore specifically identical, as far as external characters alone would indicate-exhibit in the disposition of the central chambers some well-marked differences of structure, hitherto recognized as being of specific or even subgeneric value, but which appear to be entirely dependent upon the ages of the individuals concerned. In young individuals, as indicated by tests of small size, a relatively very large central initial chamber is distinctly visible; whereas, in the older or larger specimens, this chamber can only be determined by means of a powerful magnifier. This so-called dimorphism was found to obtain in both the perforate and imperforate groups, — in Nummulina, Assilina, Biloculina, Dillina, Fabularia, Lacazina, Triloculina, Trillina, Quinqueloculina, Pantallina, Heterillina. (Rev. scient., March 31.) A. H. [843

-

Worms.

Anatomy of Terebellides. The anatomy and histology of T. Stroemii M. Sars has been investigated by Steen at Kiel. The drawings on the three plates are too schematic in character to inspire absoÎute confidence. The published article takes the form of a complete monograph, but consists substantially of a detailed description of the external form and appendages, and of the internal anatomy and histology. The various organs are taken up in succession, and excellently treated; but the details are hardly adapted for a brief abstract, although they will be valuable in compiling a comparative histology. — (Jena. zeitschr. naturw., xvi. 201.) C. S. M. [844

Multiplication of worms by division.— Dr. C. Bülow has investigated the processes of transverse division in Lumbriculus variegatus, and the regeneration of parts to complete a new individual out of the pieces of the parent body. His article is prefaced by a valuable résumé of previous investigations. In Lumbriculus, besides the sexual there is a natural asexual propagation, by simple transverse division, occurring spontaneously. Head and tail, both or either, can be re-formed. There is no budding zone formed before division: the process is therefore different from that in Nais and the Syllidae. In both head and tail the segments are apparently newly developed from before backwards (contra Bonnet). The head and tail buds are formed within 48 hours after division; and, in a few days, defecation through the new tail-end may be observed. The re-development may be produced by artificial division. One individual was cut into fourteen pieces, of which thirteen grew up to complete individuals. (The paper would have been improved by much shortening and more careful arrangement.) -(Arch. für. naturgesch., 1883, 1.) C. S. M. [845 Anatomy of Prorhynchus.-J. von Kennel publishes an article on Prorhynchus, one of those doubtful genera of worms whose systematic position could not hitherto be satisfactorily determined. Kennel shows definitely that it is a rhabdocoelus turbellarian. It has a simple straight intestine, and muscular pharynx. The structure of the integument and parenchyma of the body is like that in other Rhabdocoela, and not like that of nemerteans. The same may be said of the nervous system. The penis lies well forward, and, before its structure and relations were correctly understood, was compared to the proboscis of nemerteans, with which it has no relation. It is armed with a spine, and has a muscular bulb at its base, which is connected by a somewhat tortuous duct with the vesicula, in which the products of the male glands are directly received. It lies ventrally from the pharynx. The stylet is exserted through the mouth. It is a very complicated apparatus, which the author fully describes. There are no separate yolkglands; but these are united (unlike other plathelminths) in one mass with the ovary. This is the most important difference found between Prorhynchus and other Rhabdocoela. — (Semper's arbeiten, vi. 69.) C. S. M. [846

VERTEBRATES.

Equilibration functions of the semicircular canals. From observations on dogs with one or both auditory nerves divided, Bechterew concludes: 1°. Unilateral section is followed by forced movements of rotation around the long axis of the body, with deviation of the eyes, nystagmus, etc. 2°. The movements, at first constant, occur later in paroxysms separated by periods of rest. During the latter, the animal assumes a constrained position, lying on the opposite side to that of the section. Finally, the rolling movements altogether cease; but the animal has a tendency to exhibit circus movements towards the injured side, and has a deficient power of maintaining its balance on its feet. 3o. All the above symptoms are reflex, since they are still exhibited after removal of the cerebral hemispheres, or in narcosis. They are, however, more marked when the hemispheres are present. 4°. Section of both auditory nerves is accompanied by marked deficiency of the power of maintaining equilibrium. The animal can neither stand nor walk. 5°. When only one nerve is cut, the forced movements are due to a disharmony resulting from the absence on one side of

the normal semicircular-canal sensations, and their presence on the other. Hence the cerebellar equilibration-centres act abnormally; also, when the cerebrum is present, the uninjured side sends stimuli to the centres of consciousness, which, being unbalanced by the usual associated stimuli from the other side, lead to vertigo. 6°. The well-known action of auditory impressions in influencing movements (as in dancing and marching) occurs, in all probability, through the semicircular canals. (Pflüg. archiv, XXX. 312.) H. N. M. [847

Influence of the spleen on pancreatic digestion. Twenty years ago Schiff published researches which led him to believe, that, after removal of the spleen, the pancreatic secretion lost its power of digesting proteids. His final conclusion was that, the spleen did not itself make the proteolytic ferment, but furnished to the blood something essential for its formation in the pancreas. Schiff's statement attracted but few adherents; and Haidenhain, in 1875, proved that a substance (zymogen) capable of yielding proteolytic ferment, accumulated in the pancreas quite independently of the presence or absence of the spleen. This seemed, at first sight, to completely overthrow Schiff's theory of the splenic function in digestion. Herzen now brings forward experiments which reconcile the apparently opposite conclusions. He claims that his researches on dogs prove that after removal of the spleen, the pancreas may still heap up zymogen (trypsogen), but that this is not under such circumstances transformed into a proteolytic ferment (trypsin), as it is normally when the spleen is present and in physiological activity. Hence, after splenotomy, or in cases of serious splenic disease, the digestion of albuminous substances is greatly impaired. — (Pflüg. archiv, xxx. 295.) [848

H. N. M.

Mammals.

Early stages of the guinea-pig ovum. - Spee has published the results of his observations on this subject. Up to the beginning or middle of the fourth day, the ova remain in the oviduct, whence they must be carefully extracted. Eggs of two days have four segmentation-spheres, around and between which a coagulated mass soon appears post mortem. On the third day the limits of the cells are unrecognizable; but they may be more or less isolated by bursting the ovum. After the fifth day, the coagulum no longer appears around the segmentationspheres. In all the early stages post-mortem changes are very great and rapid. While still free, after the fourth day, the ova lie in the tip of the uterus, whence they may be driven by forcing with a syringe a current of warm 0.5% salt solution into the vagina, and out of the tip of the uterus (after cutting off the oviduct). By employing this method, Spee has obtained germ-vesicles (keimblasen) agreeing essentially with corresponding stages as found in other mammalia, the principal difference being that the cells are relatively larger, segmentation not having progressed so far. There is an outer wall close against the zona pellucida, and composed of a single layer of cells, spindle shaped when seen in section, polygonal when viewed from the surface. At one pole is an accumulation of cells, the keimhügel,' while at the opposite pole the cells at the outer layer are thickened. In a later stage the cells of the latter pole are found to have thrown out branching processes which penetrate the zona pellucida. Apparently these processes increase in size; and it is probable that they make a hole through the zona by which the egg makes its exit. Spee has actually found, in one case,

an empty ruptured zona. This is an important and interesting observation, because the fate of the zona pellucida has not been hitherto determined. Spee adds the suggestion that possibly the same protoplasmic processes which serve to free the egg, also act to fasten it to the wall of the uterus.

As a continuation of Spee's paper, Hensen describes an ovum, soon after attachment to the uterine wall, found six days and twenty-three hours after copulation. The egg (0.13×0.08. mm. in diam.) lay in an open pit of the mucosa. It consists of a vesicle, with a mass of cells on one side, therefore agreeing in structure with the latest stage of the free ovum seen by Spee. Formerly Hensen considered the mass of cells to represent the ovum, and the wall of the vesicle to be an outgrowth of the epithelium of the uterus; but he now withdraws that interpretation, and accepts Schäfer's view that the whole is ovic. "The vesicle is therefore the single-layered primary chorion, which is derived from the ectoderm, and is separated very early from the embryo proper. In other mammals this separation does not occur until after the formation of the amnion." The ectodermal cells of the germ-mass of the embryo come to form a hollow, and this hollow Hensen homologizes with the amniotic cavity of other mammals. Of course, therefore, it is bounded by the ectoderm, and, beyond that, by the entoderm. The apparent reversal of the layers is therefore due to the early development and peculiar position of the amniotic cavity, inside the ovum. In conclusion, Hensen insists upon the importance of showing that the histological value of the germlayers is really preserved, even in so unusual a form of development as that of the guinea-pig. — (Arch. anat. physiol., anat. abth., 1883, 44, 61.) c. s. M.

[849

In

Germ-layers and gastrula of the mouse. some rodents the germ-layers have apparently a position the reverse of that in other animals. This fact has led Selenka to investigate the early stages of white mice in the search for the explanation of the reversal. He has published a preliminary notice of his results. There is a special envelope of covering cells within which the cells of the embryo proper undergo their development. (This is perhaps the stage described by Spee- - see 849- in the guinea-pig, as a vesicle with a clump of cells at one end.) The embryo-cells lie at one end, separate into the two primitive layers, and become united with a support formed by a knob of cells attached to the uterine wall. This knob is not used in the construction of the embryo. The mass of ectoderm-cells becomes hollow, and the cavity increases in size. In the ectodermal cells limiting it, the ectodermal organs of the embryo are developed according to the typical processes in other mammalia. A more detailed report of this interesting research will be given when the full memoir is published. (Biol. centralbl., ii. 550.) [850

C. 8. M.

Embryology of mice. The observations of Selenka and Kupffer on the development of mice have been critically reviewed by Hensen. He does not accept their views as to the gastrulation, or that the formation of the cavity bounded by the ectoderm is the gastrula development. Selenka attributes the reversal of the germ-layers to the proliferation of the ectoderm-cells; but Hensen maintains it to be due to the invagination of the mass of cells forming the embryo-germ. The ectodermal cavity in Arvicula does not correspond, as would seem natural, to the amniotic cavity of the guinea-pig; for an amnion is subsequently developed in its interior. (Does not this rather indicate that Hensen's homologizing the

The Onondaga Indians. — In 1882 the legislature of New York appointed three commissioners to inquire concerning the condition of the Onondaga Indians; and their report has been published. With the feud between the the christian and the pagan parties, we have nothing here to do; but much interesting ethnologic matter appears throughout the pamphlet. On the reservation in Onondaga County are 319 souls, who, with others of their tribe scattered through the state, amounting in all to 500, constitute a nation, recognized as such in treaties and by the courts, holding their lands in perpetuity, not to be sold or in any manner disposed of, and regulating them entirely after their own fashion. The origination of the union of the Six Nations is detailed in Morgan's League of the Iroquois, and a brief sketch of their history is given in the pamphlet now under review. The Onondagas hold their land in common; but certain portions are held by individuals, and these possessions are bought and sold and leased to one another. Some of them are thrifty farmers, owning cattle, oxen, and horses, and they frequently monopolize the best lands. The old custom of frequent divorces has been partly broken up by the new constitution of the tribe; and the law now conforms to that of New York respecting the Indians, - that those who contract marriage shall be considered as lawful husband and wife, and their children shall be legitimate. In practice, however, there is just ground of complaint. The evidence before the commission shows that old practices are kept up in some of the Indian dances that are incompatible with civilization. To the report of the commission are appended the new constitution, and the complaints and charges of the two factions in the tribe.-J. W. P.

1852

Philologic science. - Dr. Frederick Müller, of Vienna, published, during the past year, parts 1 and 2 of vol. ii. of his Grundriss der sprachwissenschaft, devoted to the languages of the smooth-haired races. Part 1 is devoted to the Australians, the Hyperboreans, and the Americans; part 2, to the Malays and the northern Asiatic (Mongolian) races. Of the subdivisions of the Australian race, it is impossible here to speak. The Hyperboreans are made to embrace the Yenisei-Ostjaks, Yukagirs, Chukchis, Ainos, Aleuts, and Innuits. The American languages discussed are the Athapaskan, Algonkin, Iroquois, Dakotan, Cherokee, Chahta, Kolosh, Selish, Sahaptin, Chinuk, Mutsun, Nahuatl, Sonoran, Otomi, Taraskan, Tototen, Matlatsinka, Mixtek, Zapotek, Maya, Mosquito, Bribri, Arowak, and Carib, in North America; and the Moxos, Muisca, Paeses, Yaruros, Chimu, Inca, Guarani, Kiriri, Chiquitos, Lules, Abipones, Moluches, and Tehuelche, in South America.

Under the high Asian languages in part 2, Prof. Müller includes the Samoyede, Ural-Allaic, Japanese, Corean, Tibetan, Burman, Siamese, Khasian, Anamese, and Chinese.

In no case does the list of languages claim to be exhaustive; and especially is this true of North America. The plan with each tongue is to commence with the sound system, and, proceeding from a discussion of root-forms, to progress through the differentiation

Tall. 171-180 Above ordinary. 166-170 Medium 165 Below ordinary. 164-160 Low 159-150 149-140

Lowest normals. 139-125

Very low.

Dwarfish.

Absolute dwarf.

Phenomenal.

124-100

99-75

74 et infra.

The observation was made, that the figures given are for Italians, and would have to be modified for each race of men. - -(Anthrop. soc. Wash.; meeting April 17.) J. W. P. [854 Through Siberia. This is the title of a work by Henry Lansdell, first appearing in 1881, and issuing in a third edition, in 1882, by Houghton, Mifflin, & Co., Boston. The author's journey was overland through Tobolsk, Tomsk, and the southern part of Siberia, across the head waters of the great northflowing river-systems of Asiatic Russia, to the mouth of the Amoor River. The chief motive of the trip was a study of prison-life in the countries visited; but works of this kind frequently reveal delicate flowers of aboriginal life and facts that are as welcome to the reader as their great value is unappreciated by the writer. The author gives a list of the stocks mentioned in the Russian map of this territory, as follows: Slavs, Zeryani, Voguls, Votyaks, Tatars, Kirghees, Karakalpaks, Sarto, Usbeks, Turks, Kalmuks, Teleuti, Ostjaks, Samoyedes, Yurakis, Yakuts, Tunguses, Goldi, Gilyaks, Yukagirs, Chukchis, Koriaks, Kamchadales, Ainos, Buriats, Manchus, and Chinese. The manner in which the ethnological information is scattered through the work renders it difficult to refer to that concerning any one tribe. Especial interest will be taken in the mention, on p. 26, of the Tatars, descendants of the followers of Genghis Khan. The ethnography of the Ob-Irtish valley, including Tatars, Russians, Voguls, Ostjaks, and Samoyedes, will be found on pp. 98-106, 124-126; that of the Yenisei, on pp. 205-210; that of the Yakutsk province, on pp. 296-308, with a short vocabulary on p. 305. In chapter xxviii. will be found an account of personal adventures with the Mongolian frontier races; and in chapter xxx., a description of the Burjats. Coming to the Amoor River, the Oronchons, or reindeer Tunguses, and the Manyargs, or horse Tunguses, meet the traveller (see pp. 507-511). Chapter xliii. introduces us to Manchuria and its inhabitants; and chapter xlvi., to the Gilyaks and Goldi at the mouth of the Amoor; and the closing portion, to eastern Siberia, the Kamchatkals, and Sauhalins. The volume closes with a bibliography and a copious index.-J. W. P. [855

EGYPTOLOGY.

Art in Egypt. - The influence of the earlier art of Chaldea and Assyria on art in Egypt, is the subject of a work by L. von Sybel, Kritik des aegyptischen

ornaments (Marburg, 1883), in which he takes the position, that, after the eighteenth and nineteenth dynasties, the art of Egypt was largely modified by the influence of Chaldean and Assyrian art. This, he asserts, is shown not only in decoration, but also in statuary of the human form. Perrot, though differing in some respects from the author, bears witness to his extended researches and his excellent taste. (Rev. archéol., Dec., 1882.) H. O.

[856 Color in Egypt. -"Egyptian color must be seen in Egyptian sunlight, which almost blots it out, or in the dim interior of an Egyptian temple, and then the strong contrasts of bright hues are very much sweeter There and more musical than they seem to us. is a gentle harmony in them. . . . It is impossible, without seeing a very fine Epyptian monument under the conditions of light in which the builders meant it to be seen, for us to apprehend their coloring, which certainly, when represented in pictures, or seen in our own generally diffused light, has an aspect of harshness, though the harmony of color is maintained in the use the Egyptians make of it. Take ivory and ebony, gold, lapis lazuli, green and red jasper, and let a great master make a mosaic in Egyptian style, and you would see how really grand it is, and how it has in it that large simplicity which connects it with the expression of durability. I think if you will study Egyptian decoration you will find this to be true." — (R. S. Poole, in Lect. on art,' 1883.) H. O. [857

EARLY INSTITUTIONS.

Institutions of early Rome. - M. Alfred Maury sums up the conclusions of Gen. Favé in his Ancienne Rom (Paris, 1880, 8°). The city presents itself at first as an aristocracy of free men (ingenui) governed by the heads of families (patres). It was an aristocracy of landlords and warriors. Below this aristocracy were the plebeians, who were clients of the patricians; at any rate, subject to them, and governed by them. Most of the land was in the hands of the patricians. The plebeians appear to have had only movable property, and not much of that. As in the feudal time, during the middle ages, war was regarded as the school of virtue; but it was a school for every class of free men (which was not the case in feudal times). The freemen went to war at their own cost, each man spending his own money in it. The burden of military service was very heavy for the poorer classes of freemen, and it was a principal cause of the pauperism and indebtedness of the plebeians, of which we read so much. The people were continually called out to war, and had no time left them in which to provide themselves with the necessary means of support. The writer describes the institution of paid forces and standing armies. This gave to Rome a great advantage over the other states of Italy, where the people were still called to war at their individual cost. The result was, that not only Latium, but almost all Italy, was soon subject to Rome. Colonies of Roman citizens were then planted in various parts of Italy, and, what was unprecedented, garrisons of soldiers were established to protect them. The other states of Italy did not protect the colonies which went out from them. The colonies were frequently quite severed from the mother-state. This was not the case with the colonies of Rome. They were the outposts of a military system. The arts of war and defence were constantly cultivated by the Romans. This was not the case in the other states of Italy, and they were easily conquered. Gen. Favé considers the early history of Rome from the military point of view. (Journ. des sav., Jan., 1883.) D. w. R. [858