second report of that commission has just appeared. The most important work upon which the commissioners have been engaged is that of mapping the grounds within the state limits suitable for the cultivation of oysters, and assigning the same to those engaged in that industry, upon the payment of an almost nominal fee. Natural beds, or those which have been so within ten years, are exempted from assignment. The immediate result of this policy is to give to the oystermen a property in the ground they use, protection against encroachment, and security in the possession of improvements thereon. This, in time, will largely increase the yield of this valuable foodsupply, and add to the taxable resources of the state. At a time when the beds of the Chesapeake are perilously near a destruction, which, under the present conditions of folly, ignorance, and greed in those most interested, is inevitable, the action of the state of Connecticut assumes a national importance. The work of surveying the coast with the co-operation of the U. S. coast survey has been actively carried on, and in its most important features has been carried out for that part of the shore west from the Connecticut river. By the commencement of the working-season of 1883, it is believed that 90,000 acres of oyster-grounds will be held by cultivators under state jurisdiction. A new mode of cultivation, or capture of spat for seed on muddy bottoms, has been invented at Groton. Birch-trees of fifteen or twenty feet in height, and three or four inches in diameter at the butt, are thrust about three feet into the mud, with the tops under the surface of the lowest water, and inclined at an angle of some 45° with the current. The floating spat attaches itself to the branches, and grows rapidly; a single bush affording, in a few months, five to fifteen bushels of seedoysters, none of which would have survived settling on the muddy bottom. An absurd

claim was made, that these submerged bushes produced scarlet-fever and diphtheria, and many were destroyed; but the plan has recently received legal recognition, and, with proper effort, can be made to produce millions of bushels of oysters where is now only waste ground.

The oyster-business in all its branches has attained greater perfection in Connecticut waters than in any other part of the country. It is usually very profitable, but subject to unexpected and sometimes ruinous losses. Thousands of bushels of oysters have been destroyed on one patch in a week by starfish. A firm is mentioned which in two years, off Charles Island, has lost oysters valued at one hundred thousand dollars. The starfish seem to move in crowds, which scatter when they reach a bed, and devour all before them. One fisherman, while searching for them, came upon an immense bunch, and gathered in seventy-five bushels of starfish in a short time, thus saving his bed. The coot (Fulica atra), it has been discovered, feeds upon young starfish, and its protection is recommended. The drill (Urosalpinx cinereus Stimps.) and periwinkle (Sycotypus canaliculatus Gill), as well as the drumfish, are reported to do but inconsiderable damage, especially in the deeper waters. The pollution of rivers falling into the Sound, the dumping of mud dredged out of harbors, and oyster-thieving, are referred to, and legislative regulations suggested. propagation of the oyster has been attempted, but thus far with little prospect of success, on account of the extreme minuteness and delicacy of the embryos. Without radical improvement on present methods, this branch of the subject offers no grounds for belief in its practical application to economic purposes. The report contains a map of the triangulation executed, and an appendix of statutes bearing on the general topic.

The

from heliometric observations of the distances and position-angles of the satellites inter se, and not, as usual, from the planet. He is engaged upon a new determination of this character. The chief advantage in this method is, that measures of the star-like satellites from each other are much less likely to be affected by constant errors than are measures of the satellites from the planet. The number of unknown quantities in his final equations is twelve; six observations, at least, being required in order to obtain all the corrections to the elements. (Copernicus, Feb.) D. P. T. [474

MATHEMATICS.

Complexes of the second degree. - Herr Stahl gives a synthetic treatment of certain points in connection with Kummer's sixteen-nodal quartic surface. The processes are new; but, for the most part, the results are well known.-(Journ. reine angew. math., xciii.) T. C. [475 Rotation of a liquid ellipsoid. In two articles Mr. Greenhill has examined the conditions to be satisfied in order that a liquid ellipsoid may rotate about an axis other than a principal axis, and have a free surface. The axis of rotation, as stated by Riemann, lies in a principal plane of the ellipsoid. The motion is supposed to be set up in the liquid by mechanical processes; and the pressure at any point is investigated, the liquid being supposed contained in a rigid shell. The conditions are then investigated that are requisite for the ellipsoidal shell to be a surface of equal pressure, and that a free surface can exist. (Proc. Cambr. phil. soc., 1882.) T. c. [476 Non-Euclidean geometry.-Dr. Story has shown, in a previous paper, how the formulae of a nonEuclidean plane trigonometry could be deduced from those of the Euclidean spherical trigonometry; viz., by the replacement of each side by a constant multiple of that side, and each angle by a constant multiple of that angle. In the present paper he makes the corresponding deduction for any non-Euclidean spherical trigonometry, and also gives a number of formulae relating to distances, areas, etc. A new and important principle is exhibited; viz., the distance (or angle) between any two geometrical elements (points, planes, or straight lines) is, to a constant factor près, the same, in whatever way it is measured. For example, the formulae show that the distance of a given point from the nearest point in a given plane is proportional to the angle between the given plane and the nearest plane through the point (i.e., that which makes the least angle with it); the least (or greatest) distance from a point of one of two given straight lines to a point of the other is proportional to the least (or greatest) angle which a plane through one of the straight lines makes with a plane through the other; and, if the lines intersect, this is proportional to the angle between the lines, etc. Expressions are given for the circumference and area of any circle, the area of any spherical polygon, the surface and volume of any sphere; it is also shown that the double plane is identical with a sphere of quasi-infinite radius. A further abstract will be given on the completion of the paper. — (Amer. journ. math., v.) T. c.

PHYSICS.

Acoustics.

[477

Vibratory movement of bells. - Mathieu has recently studied the vibrations of bells, with a preliminary investigation of the vibrations of bent bars, considering the case of an ordinary bell in which the thickness in any meridian increases from summit to base. Between the vibratory movement of a bell and that of a plane plate, the essential difference exists, that, while in the latter the longitudinal or tangential movement and the transverse movement are given by independent equations, in the former, the normal and tangential motions are given by three equations which are not independent. The pitch of the notes of a bell does not change if the thickness varies in the same relation throughout every part: since the terms depending on the square of the thickness may be neglected; at least, for the graver partials. It is impossible to construct a bell so that it shall vibrate only normally; and, with a hammer, the tangential

vibrations are of the same order as the normal vibrations. A purely tangential motion can be realized only with a spherical bell of constant thickness. -(Journ. de phys., Jan.) C. R. C. [478

Vibrations of solid bodies in contact with liquids. F. Auerbach has investigated the effect of liquid contained in a glass vessel upon the pitch of the sound produced when the latter is set into vibration. He reaches the following results: 1. The geometrical lowering in pitch (ratio of number of vibrations), produced by a liquid contained in a cylindrical glass completely filled by it, is less in proportion as the pitch of the empty glass is higher. 2. The arithmetical lowering of pitch with a cylindrical glass of mean pitch is approximately proportional to the reciprocal of the square root of the number of vibrations of the empty glass. 3. The lowering of pitch, when the glass is completely filled, is not noticeably dependent on its height. 4. The geometrical lowering of pitch produced in cylindrical glasses of different widths is greater in proportion as the glass is narrower. 5. The arithmetical lowering of pitch with cylinders of different widths is inversely as the square root of the width. 6. The arithmetical change of pitch is inversely proportional to the square root of the number of wave-lengths of the sound given by the empty glass contained between the walls and axis of the cylinder. 7. The lowering of pitch is greater as the density of the liquid is greater. 8. It is greater in proportion as the compressibility of the liquid is less. (Ann. phys. chem., 1882, xiii.) C. R. C. [479

Optics. (Photometry.)

Solar photometry.-M. A. Crova has recently made some comparisons of the relative brilliancy of the sun and of a Carcel lamp. He compared the lighting-power of different wave-lengths in the two spectra, thereby deducing curves for each. The areas enclosed by these curves then represented the total amount of light given out by each source. He then deduced the factor by which it was necessary to multiply the smaller ordinates in order to render the two areas equal. The ordinate of intersection of the two curves of the same area then furnished at once the wave-length whose photometric comparison would give the ratio of the total light emitted by the two sources. This wave-length (582) is situated in the yellowish-green, and may be isolated by transmitting the light through a mixture of the solutions of perchloride of iron and chloride of nickel. The two lights thus obtained were of precisely the same color, and their ratio was at once determined by measurement with a Foucault photometer. After making all corrections, this method gives about 60,000 carcels (600,000 candles). — (Comptes rendus, Dec. 18, 1882.) [480

W. H. P.

Electricity.

Electric amalgamation. In the process of obtaining gold by amalgamation from ores containing arsenic and certain other impurities, the mercury 'sickens,' and fails to take up all the gold present. Mr. Richard Barker has devised a method of amalgamation which has given very satisfactory results. The inclined table over which the ore is washed contains hollows filled with mercury; over these, in the water containing the washings, copper wires are introduced, and brought so near that a powerful current may be passed to the mercury, which seems to gather itself away from the impurities, and to act more energetically upon the ore. (Iron, Feb. 9.)

J. T.

[481

Relation between viscosity and galvanic resistance. - Mr. L. Grossman applies formulas deduced by him in a former article (Ann. phys. chem., 1882, xvi.) to the analysis of experiments made by Grotrian, Kohlrausch, and others, on the temperature curves of internal friction and galvanic resistance in fluids, obtaining what he considers accurate determinations of twenty-five temperature co-efficients for each of these properties in solutions of six different salts; hence he concludes, that, for these solutions, the temperature curves of these two properties are equal.(Ann. phys. chem., 1883, i.) J. T. [482 Molecular theory of magnetization.-D. E. Hughes, in a lecture before the Institution of mechanical engineers, says that if a coil be placed at right angles with a plane circuit containing a soft iron wire, which passes through the centre of the coil, torsion of the wire induces currents in the coil which are reversible with the direction of torsion, but independent of its amount. A steel core does not respond in this way to torsion: hence, by analogy of the effects produced by inclining the core to the plane of the coil, the lecturer argues a greater molecular rigidity in steel than in iron. Attention was called to the fact that the coercive power of iron is greater than that of steel if the inducing forces are within the range of iron.' Iron, on being twisted or subjected to longitudinal vibration, lost its magnetism, steel did not. The magnetic properties of iron were illustrated by a glass tube containing iron filings, which lost its residual magnetism on being shaken or carefully rotated. The greater molecular rigidity of iron alloys was compared to the properties of the tube when petroleum was poured in among the iron filings, greater coercive power being thus attained. These facts go to support the theory that steel is an alloy of iron and carbon. — (Iron, Feb. 2.) [483

J. T.

ENGINEERING.

Stability of brick conduits. — Mr. A. Fteley contrasted the theory on which the designing of brick conduits is based with the actual conditions under which such structures are built. Sewers and conduits are often built in ground more or less yielding, and the action of the earth about them is an important element of their stability. Under such conditions, such structures must move more or less after being built, and the conditions of stability must be very different from what they appear to be from a study of the original drawing. A study of the changes of form, by means of exact measurements made during construction, might point to defects due to the design or mode of construction, to the ground in which the sewer or conduit is built, or to the want of care or skill in the builder.

The author presented a diagram of an apparatus, showing, in full size on a section drawn at a small scale, all the deviations of the brick-work from the true line of section. The exaggerated distortion of the outline defines very clearly the slightest defects in construction or the movement of the structure. Diagrams were exhibited showing distortions in a conduit nine feet in width and seven feet eight inches high, and were taken at points where the conduit was built in firm, dry ground, in yielding ground, in wet trenches, on platforms in swampy land, and on high artificial embankments. From these diagrams and the distortions they exhibited, the defects in construction and design, in different locations and under different loads, were explained. The tendencies of the structure to spread under different conditions was alluded to; also the section of excavation in yielding ground best suited to prevent movement.

An instance of the successful underpinning of a brick conduit was described. A large quantity of water broke in between the outside of the brick-work and the sheet-piling supporting the trench, and washed away the sand forming the foundation for a length of about thirty feet, leaving it without support for that distance. A very simple and efficient means was described by which this space was filled with a grout of Portland cement. (Bost. soc. civ. eng.; meeting Feb. 21.) [484 Steel castings.-M. A. Pourcel described recently, before the Iron and steel institute of Vienna, a series of experiments upon steel castings. He stated that the chief points to which attention is now directed are, increase in the size of the castings, and improvements in the methods of annealing and tempering in order to endue the casting with the highest mechanical qualities corresponding to the chemical composition. The last progressive step was the casting of cylinders for a Paris firm, 2.04 m. in diameter, over 2 m. long, and 55 mm. thick. These cylinders supported a pressure of forty-five atmospheres without showing signs of percolation. (Engineering, Dec. 8, 1882.) G. A. H. [485 Screw-propeller blades. The use of manganese bronze as a material for screw-propeller blades is rapidly extending. The first run of the 'Alaska' from Queenstown to New York in less than seven days was made immediately after her steel blades had been replaced by blades of manganese bronze. The great qualities of manganese bronze are its strength, and its freedom from corrosion. Recent experiments show that it has a transverse strength about double that of gun metal, and also, up to the elastic limit, double that of steel. The cost of manganese bronze is about double that of steel; but it is claimed that propeller-blades made of the bronze will last during the lifetime of the vessel, while steel blades require renewal every three years. - (Engineering, Jan. 5.) [486

G. A. H.

CHEMISTRY.

(General, physical, and inorganic.)

Formation of carbonic oxide. - Dr. L. P. Kinnicutt suggested a modification of Noack's method (Berichte deutsch. chem. gessellsch., xvi. 75) for the preparation of carbonic oxide. He found that this gas was freely evolved when magnesia alba was heated in a retort with zinc-dust, and that it contained a small percentage of carbonic dioxide. - (Harvard chem. club; meeting March 13.) [487

On the probable existence of new acids containing phosphorus. - Concerning the replacement of oxygen by platinous chloride in certain forms of phosphoric acid, Prof. W. Gibbs made the following suggestions: Schützenberger described, some years since, a remarkable series of compounds in which platinous chloride (Pt Cl2) replaces a molecule of chlorine or an atom of oxygen. Thus we have PC13. Pt Cl, chemically equivalent to PCl5. The corresponding acid is P. Pt Cl. (OH)3, which may be regarded as a derivative of PO (OH)3. The same chemist obtained three other analogous acids, having respectively the formulas P. Pt Cl2. (OH)6 (corresponding to the chloride 2 PC13. Pt Cl2), P. Pt Clą. (OH), and P2O2. Pt Cl. (OH) ̧. În all these cases we have the chemical equivalence Pt Cl2 2 Cl = 0. Hence, following up the relation suggested by the equivalence expressed by P. Pt Cl2. (OH), = P. O. (OH)3, it seems at least probable that there are modifications of phosphoric acid expressed by the structural formulas,

METALLURGY.

Action of sunlight upon silver amalgamation. - By the process as usually conducted, native sulphide of silver is converted into chloride by treatment with mixed sulphate of copper and common salt. The chloride so formed is decomposed and amalgamated by mercury. M. P. Laur, of Rodez, has investigated this matter in the laboratory. In a glass vessel he placed a solution of common salt and sulphate of copper; a porous vessel filled with mercury was suspended in it, and a platinum electrode dipped into the mercury; the second electrode was a leaf of sulphide of silver, and was dipped into the copper solution. The electrodes were connected with a galvanometer, and the needle was found to swing according to the intensity of the light. The cupric chloride was changed by the mercury to cuprous chloride; and the latter acted upon the silver sulphide only in the presence of sunlight. - (Iron, Dec. 22, 1882.) R. H. R.

[489

Petroleum as a blast-furnace fuel. - E. W. Shippen, of Meadville, recently built a small blastfurnace for testing petroleum. The furnace was 35 ft. high, 3 ft. hearth, 5 ft. bosh. It was fired with dried wood, iron-ore, and limestone. Hot oil was injected at the tuyeres under 16 lbs. pressure in the form of a spray. The white-hot charcoal, when struck by the hot oil, turned as black as if cold water had been thrown upon it. The experiment does not appear to have been a success. (Iron, Dec. 29, 1882.) R. H. R.

[490

GEOLOGY. Lithology.

Crystals of serpentine.— Professor H. C. Lewis called attention to some interesting crystals of serpentine which occur in deweylite from Way's felspar quarry, Delaware. The crystals have a gray color, a pearly lustre, and an eminent basal cleavage almost micaceous. They polarize light, and are optically biaxial with a small axial angle, being probably orthorhombic. The blowpipe examination and analysis proved the mineral to have the composition of serpentine. The deweylite contains rounded masses of felspar partially altered into deweylite, together with sharp cleavage fragments of quartz, such as would be produced by throwing a heated crystal of quartz into cold water. The micaceous serpentine was the result of the alteration of mica, but, being crystallized, was not a true pseudomorph. The two points to which he desired to call special attention were the occurrence of serpentine in the crystallized state, and the direct alteration of graphic granite into magnesian minerals. — (Acad. nat. sc. Philad.; meeting March 13.) [492

-

MINERALOGY.

Bournonite. — A mineral resembling tetrahedrite, from Park county, Col., analyzed by W. T. Page, agreed essentially in composition with bournonite, and can be regarded as a variety in which most of the lead has been replaced by copper and zinc.(Chem. news, xlvi. 215.) S. L. P. [493

Dopplerite. - Very carefully selected material of this organic mineral from Aussee, in Styria, has been investigated by W. Demel. He shows that the ash consists mostly of oxide of calcium, which is in chemical combination with the organic substance. The composition of the whole cannot be expressed by a simple formula; but the organic part is of an acid nature, agreeing with the formula C12 H14 06:1 (Berl. berichte, xv. 2901.) S. L. P.

--

[494

Native iron. - Small grains of iron accompanying gold from the gold-washings in Brush creek, Montgomery county Va., have been analyzed by W. T. Page. Absence of cobalt and nickel shows that they are probably not of meteoric origin; and evidence is given that they are grains of native iron, and not derived from the tools of workmen. Similar grains have also been separated and analyzed from auriferous sand from Burke county, N.C. (Chem. news, xlvi. 205.) S. L. P. [495

Orthite. This mineral from Mitchel county, N.C., occurring in flattened crystals, has been analyzed by W. H. Seamon. The results of analysis showed a very small content of the cerium metals and a large quantity of calcium oxide. The formula derived was that of an ortho-silicate. (Chem. news, xlvi. 215.) S. L. P. [497 Mimetite. Colorless crystals of this mineral from Eureka, Nev., gave F. A. Marsie, upon analysis, the usual formula, 3 Pb,AS2O8, PbĊl2. - (Chem. news, xlvi. 215.) S. L. P. [498

METEOROLOGY.

Barometric laws. An important contribution to this branch of meteorology has been made by Dr. Köppen of the Deutsche seewarte. Reviewing the work of Ley, as expressed by him in the eleven pos

tulates published in 'The laws of the winds prevailing in western Europe,' he claims that three of these have been shown to be incorrect, while the others are confirmed. For these three he would substitute the following: "Mountainous regions, in spite of the copiousness of their rains, are visited by centres of depression more rarely than the surrounding lowlands and seas, in general, there is not wholly wanting some influence of precipitation upon the depression; but this influence is not yet clearly defined, and in any case is but indirect."

Recent meteorological investigations justify the enunciation of four new theorems, which the author - gives as follows: 1°. The direction of air-currents, in our latitudes, at the distance of from 500 to 3,500 metres from the earth's surface, is, on the average, nearly parallel to the isobars of that layer; in the lowest stratum it deviates from 0 to 8 points towards the side of the lower pressure, and, in the layer from 3,500 to 9,000 metres from the earth, from 0 to 2 points towards the side of the higher pressure, from the isobars of the respective layer. 20. Since the pressure decreases with the altitude more slowly in warm than in cold air, the gradients, independent of their ratio to the pressure, are changed, as we ascend, in such a manner that an excess of pressure exists upon the side of the warmer air-columns. 3°. The advance of the depressions takes place approximately in the direction of that air-current, within it and approaching its path, which has a preponderance of accumulated energy. 4°. Since the conditions of motion at different heights of the vortex are different, there is required for its onward movement, not the state of motion of the lowest layer, but that of the sum total of layers. As the changes are continuous with the height, the state of motion of a certain mean layer, whose height is still to be determined, can in general be substituted for. it. In support of these propositions, the author refers in detail to the works published in recent years by Terrel, Hann, Guldberg, Mohn, and others, and thus incorporates the results of the leading meteorologists of the present day. (Ann. hydr. und marit. meteor., 1882, heft xi.) W. U. [499

Pressure of the wind. An apparatus for measuring the pressure of the wind, which promises good results, is suggested by Dr. Sprung of Hamburg. It consists essentially of a hollow metallic sphere erected upon the top of a long rod, which is suspended at a point just above the centre of gravity of the apparatus. Pressure upon the ball is communicated to the rod, and may be recorded by a suitable registeringcylinder. (Repert. exp. phys., xviii. heft 12.) w. U.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY.

[500

Australia. The physical structure and geology of Australia is well summarized by Rev. J. E. TenisonWoods. The southern side is low, or bounded by cliffs three hundred to six hundred feet high; the west is a tableland about a thousand feet in height; the north is a little higher; and the east averages two thousand feet elevation, and, near the south-eastern angle, bears the Australian Alps, with summits from six thousand to seven thousand feet. The interior depression is eccentrically placed near these mountains, and from them the slopes are sufficient to form the only large river-system of the continent. Elsewhere, whatever rain falls on the interior plains soon collects in shallow marshes, which are generally salt. Granite occupies most of the border-tablelands, but is sometimes replaced by vertical paleozoic or older slates and schists. These remain from a very ancient

disturbance which had no connection with the present outline of Australia, and are at places overlaid by mesozoic strata. The great depression contains cretaceous strata, overlaid along the southern shore by a full series of marine tertiary deposits reaching three or four hundred miles inland, and as much as six hundred feet above sea-level. About contemporaneous with their rapid uplift a subsidence occurred, forming the castellated fiords and diversified scenery of Port Jackson, Broken Bay, etc. Extensive volcanic overflows are common nearly all around the tableland, and generally determine the direction of modern drainage. Their date is mostly miocene; but west of Melbourne they are much more recent, and ash cones and craters are frequently preserved. There are also scattered isolated masses of cross-bedded sandstone, forming flat-topped mountains, bordered by precipitous cliffs, so characteristic of Australian scenery. These are ranked as tertiary, or older eolian deposits, and are sometimes a thousand feet thick. Other land-formations are the tertiary drifts- often containing gold from the disintegration of the Cambrian and Silurian rocks, and sometimes buried under heavy lava-flowsand the recent sands and clays of the level half-desert regions derived from the weathered granite, covering a great part of the country. The sand lies in ridges, separated by the yellow clay flats, which a little rain makes very boggy.

The narrow strip of land between the plateau and the sea is generally well enough watered by streams to possess fertile alluvial plains, occupying most of its area. On higher ground the volcanic rocks, fortunately of considerable extension, yield the best soils. The colony of Victoria has the greatest share of these. Farther inland the lands are, as a rule, poor, except in river-valleys; and toward the central basin of the continent they are desert, like the Sahara. There seems to be good probability that artesian wells may be sunk here successfully. This is indicated by the occurrence of springs within the central depressed area. Their water is warm, indicating a deep source, and a supply from the slopes of the surrounding tableland. They form travertine deposits, in which the remains of gigantic marsupials are found. The paleontological evidence of the age of the several formations above named is given with some detail. — (Proc. Linn. soc. N. S. Wales, vii. 1882, 371.) W. M. D.

[501

Be

Physical features of the Australian Alps. — A paper with this title, by J. Stirling, gives some introductory particulars of this range, about lat. 37° S., preparatory to further account of its geology and botany. Its culminating peak is Mount Kosciusko (7,256 feet), with companions in Mounts Bogong (6,508), Feathertop (6,308), and Hotham (6,100). These carry snow-patches through the summer. low them are numerous plains at altitudes from 3,000 to 6,000 feet, possessing distinctly alpine features. In midsummer (February), when the lower valleys are languishing in excessive dryness, the rich volcanic soil of these flat highlands bears a luxuriant growth of alpine flowers and snow-grasses, giving excellent pasturage. During the rest of the year their climate is inhospitable, having sudden changes, severe frosts, and heavy snows. The present dividingrange is not regarded as the original axis of elevation, but has assumed its form by the erosion of a great miocene highland north and south of it, now remaining as isolated peaks, Wills, Gibbo, Bindi, Baldhead, and others. The basis of this plateau is of crystalline schists and Silurian strata, overlaid by deposits containing miocene plants capped with basaltic flows, into all of which the rivers have cut