with. These 400 men sit under his throne (couch), which is large and ornamented with pearls. Beside him sit on the throne forty girls, whom he lies with, and he sometimes amuses himself with one of them, in presence of the companions just mentioned. He does not come down from his throne, and when he wishes to yield to the necessities of nature, he does it in a cask; when he wishes to ride, they bring his beast (horse) to the throne, from which he mounts him, and when he wishes to dismount, he approaches so close to the throne, that he can dismount upon it. He has a vice roy (successor), who leads his armies, fights his enemies, and is destined to succeed him in the government."

"I have copied all this from Ibn Fodhelan's letter, with some few alterations and abbreviations. He must be responsible for the truth of what he has related. God knows if it be true. -Now it is known that the Russians are Christians."

We shall here refrain from making any observations upon this relation, leaving it to the antiquarians of the north; we shall only deduce from it the following results: the Russians, or perhaps the principal people only among them, must have had, under the Varigians, no small resemblance to our forefathers in religion and customs; the Arabians must have visited Russia, in such a degree, as to have gained a considerable acquaintance with the nation, and to have been accustomed to see them; the Russians received commodities from the south of Asia, traded upon the Volga (if the Baltic or White Sea be not here meant), and sold girls, martens, &c. to the southern nations.

To the west and south-west the Russians were surrounded by the Slavi, whose country was three months' journey in extent. They inhabited, according to the Arabian geographers, the present Poland, Prussia, the north eastern part of Germany, as far as the Baltic, which countries were, by the ancients, called Sarmatia, a name which does not occur in history after the year 471; and the inhabitants were afterwards called by the general name of Sclavi or Slavi. The country of the Slavi, on the north, did not reach the ocean, but to a large bay of it (the Baltic), for "the ocean," says

the author of the geographical dictionary, "extends from Andalusia and Tangier to the north, until opposite the country of the Slavi, and to the north of this country there issues from it a large bay." But towards the south reached to the Caspian sea, as Cazwini expressly says. "The country of the Slavi," says the same author, "is large and widely extended in the northern regions, having towns, villages, and arable land. It has a sea of fresh water, flowing from west to cast (the Baltic); another river flows on the side of Bulgaria. They have no salt sea, for their country is far removed from the sun. Upon this sea are towns, provinces, and fortified places."

Thus unsatisfactory are the accounts the Arabian geographers can give us respecting that immense extent of country, comprehended under the name of the country of the Slavi. Even Sherif Edrisi, although he knew more of the north than any other Arabian geographer, does not give us, on the whole, a much better account. Ingeneral, the farther we proceed to the north, the knowledge of the Arabians becomes more indeterminate and unintelligible, particularly as most of the names of the countries are either at present changed, or from the dissimilarity of the languages, and different pronunciation, cannot be recognised, so that we wander, as it were, in the dark, whilst we search for similar names in the farthest north, and frequently have a difficulty of knowing in what country we are. Nevertheless, however obscure the accounts may be, which the Oriental geographers can give us of the north, it cannot be uninteresting to be acquainted with them. Cazwini, Edrisi, and Abdarrahman Yacuti (according to De Guignie), shall be our guides in this intricate path. We shall commence, from the east, with that wonderful people Yajouge and Majonge, whom the Arabs have placed in northern Siberia. Since Cazwini is, at all times, extremely inclined to enlarge upon kinds of fabulous narrations, it is not to be wondered at, that he avails himself of this opportunity of exalting the credibility of the Koran. We shall here adduce the most important of his accounts: "the mountain that surrounds Yajouge and Majouge, and is called Carnana, has its sides so steep

all

and precipitous, that no one can ascend it. Deep and thick snow, which never diminishes, lies upon its summit, on which grow plants that never fail. It extends itself from the sea of darkness to the remotest inhabited land; but no one is able to ascend it. Behind this mountain, dwell an innumerable multitude, Yajouge and Majouge. Upon the mountain there are very large serpents and lizards. Sometimes fire ascends from this mountain. He who will see what lies beyond it, neither comes to it, nor can return, but perishes. Sometimes out of a thousand one returns, who tells, that he saw, on the other side of the mountain, a large fire. It is said, that Yajouge and Majouge were full brothers, who made marauding expeditions to plunder their neighbours before the arrival of Alexander. They plundered many countries, and destroyed many men, who were not on their guard. Yet there was a portion of them, who refrained from what was forbidden, and were displeased with the conduct of the others. When the two-horned (Alexander) came to them with his army, those who had refrained from acting unjustly complained of Yajouge and Majouge, and of the injury they had done to the countries and their neighbours, and said, that they were opposed to their party, and wished to be delivered from their injustice. Many tribes, likewise, gave testimony in favour of them. Alexander heard their prayer, caused them to remove out of the mountain, and pointed out to them a land to dwell in. These people were, Alcharchalih, Albanisih, Charchirih, Alboghazghih, Alkaimakih, Algaidgianih, Alatcos, Atlurcos, Alhakshah, Alshalick, Alghuz, Albulgar, and many others, too numerous to be here described. He then raised a wall, (obex) to repress the disorderly. These people were very small; none of them was higher than three spans. Their face was very large in circumference; their hair resembled the down that grows about the mouth (lanugo); their ears were round, and so long, that they fell down upon their shoulders. Their colours are white and red; their voice is weak, and the mouth amazingly large and wide. Their country abounds in trees, water, fruits, the necessaries of life, and four footed beasts, excepting those

districts where there is constant snow and rain.”

"It is reported, that the interpreter (dragoman), Salam, who understood more than forty languages, travelled so far, that he saw the wall. The prince of the faithful, Al-Vattek-billah, chalif of the race of the Abbessidæ, sent a message to him, desiring him to travel thither to see the wall, and accurately to inform him in what manner it was built. He travelled, and returned after an absence of two years and four months, and reported tha he and his companions travelled until they came to the lord of the throne (Sarir) with the letter from the prince of the faithful. He received it very graciously, and gave them a guide. They went on, until they came to the borders of the country of Sahrat (the country of the fascinators), and thence to a very extensive country, where there was an abominable smell. They passed over this in the space of ten days. They carried with them something to smell, in order to prevent the bad consequences of the smell of the country, which attacked the heart. They hastened therefore from this country, and came to the land of Charab (Destruction), where no sound was heard, or any human being seen for a month's journey. They thence went to the fortifications near the barrier mountain (obex). The inhabitants of these castles spoke Arabic and Persian; and there was a large town, whose king's name was Chakan Atakosh. These people asked how we did. We mentioned to them, that the prince of the faithful, the chalif, had sent us in order to examine the wall, and bring him back a description of it. The king, and they who were with him, were astonished, when they heard us speak of the prince of the faithful and the chalif, of whom they knew nothing. The wall was two parasangs distant from this town. We and some others, whom they had given us as companions, travelled thither, until we came to a pass between two large mountains, which was 150 ells in breadth, in which was a gate of iron 150 ells long, provided with two pillars, each 25 ells broad and 150 long. On these rested a cross-bar of iron, 150 ells long. Over this crossbar were two battlements (pinnæ) of iron, and on each side of these twe

horns of iron, which were connected with the other battlement, so that the one was fastened to the other. The gate was built of iron-bricks, fastened together with melted copper. Each of the two folding doors was from 50 to 54 ells broad. On the gate was a lock of iron 7 ells long, in height from the ground 40 ells. Five ells above the lock was a bar, 5 ells longer than the lock. Over the lock was also a key to lock it, an ell and a half in length, which had twelve handles of iron, and was suspended by an iron chain. The threshold of the gate was 10 ells high, 100 long, although the sides were concealed under the pillars. These measures were taken by the ell measured from the wrist to the elbow. The superintendent of these fortifications mounts on horseback every Friday with ten knights, each of whom carries a hammer weighing five minæ. With these clubs they beat three times every day upon the lock, to hear if any of the Yajouge and Majouge are behind the gate, and that they may know that there is a guard. After they have struck the door, they apply their ears to it, and then they hear a tremendous noise, like that of thunder, from those who are behind. Near this there is a castle 10 ells in length; and close to the gate itself, there are two fortresses, each 100 ells in extent; between them is a well of fresh water; and in one of them there are the remains of the instruments of building, such as iron-pots and ladles. The pots stand upon elevations, on each of which there are four, which are larger than soap-boilers. There are likewise seen the remains of ironbricks, which adhere to one another from rust. Each of these is an ell and a half long, an ell broad, and two fourths high. But neither the gate, nor the cross-bar placed over it, nor the lock, nor any thing else, is rusted; for they were anointed with wisdom's oil, which preserves from rust and splinter. Salam, the interpreter, related also, that they inquired if any one had seen any of Yajouge and Majouge. They answered, that they had seen many of them upon the battlements of the building, and that a strong wind blew upon them and threw down three hundred of them, of whom each was less in size than three spans. They had crooked claws instead of nails-eyes and jawteeth

like wild beasts. When they eat, a violent motion was heard. They have two large ears, &c. The author of this book of wonder says, that there is in the interior of the county of Yajouge and Majouge, a river called Almosatin, whose mouth is unknown, &c.

Thus much of certainty at least may be deduced from this account, that Yajouge and Majouge must have been the name of a people or horde, probably of Finnish origin, which and ered about in North Siberia, and very early made themselves terrible by their attacks upon the neighbouring tribes, on which account these separated themselves from them. This simple historical truth became by degrees, according to the imaginations and wonderful ideas that prevailed in the east respecting the north, embellished, and finally, as it were, reduced to a system, which immediately discovers its Oriental origin, from the circumstance of their being subdued by Alexander, the ideal of bravery in the east. The story was thence introduced into the Koran, and thereby it was a duty imposed upon every true believer to believe every jot and tittle of it, as well as every other word which descended to the prophet. That Cazwini, however, did not in reality consider this story as any thing else than a mere fable, which he only as a Mohammedan was obliged to relate, is pretty evident from his introduction, where he says, "Yajouge and Majouge dwell in the region of the north, after one is come to the country that lies between Caimakia and Slavia. God knows their power better. Their country is so mountainous that beasts of burden cannot, but men only can, ascend their mountains. No one has given us a better account of them than Abu Ishak, lord of Chorasan, who informs us, that their articles of trade are carried on the backs of men and goats, and that a week or ten days is requir ed to go up and come down one of these mountains."

Sherif Edrisi still remains, of whom we have already observed, that, as he wrote in Sicily in the midst of Normans, he was enabled to obtain far more accurate information, respecting Europe and its northern part, than the other Arabian geographers who wrote in Asia, and were obliged to obtain theirs by way of the Caspian Sea, Bal

garia, and Russia. We can only lament, that even in him the names of places are so transformed, that we can not discover their meaning.

After having begun the seventh climate, by saying, that the whole of its first part comprehends the sea of darkness (the western ocean), and its second part the islands England, Scotland, and Ireland; he says, at the end of this part, from the coast of England to the island Danis is a day's sail; from the coast of North Scotland to the island Raslandah is a distance of three days' sail, &c. The third part begins thus: In the third part of the seventh climate is comprehended the coast of Poland, Zuada, Finmare, and the islands (peninsulas) Darmushah and Berkaghah. After having mentioned the places Vizreh (Weser) and Broberg, with the river Elbe, he says that Darmushah is of a round figure, sandy, and contains four principal towns, many smaller ones, and many celebrated and well inhabited sea-ports, among which is Vendeboskade. Between Darmushah and Berkaghah is half a day's sail; and from the town Landschaden, on the first mentioned island, to the north of the river Kotelv, at which lies the town of Sikthun, is a distance of 190 miles. The fourth part of the seventh climate comprehends the greater part of Russia, Finmare, (Finland) the country Thest, Laslandeh (Iceland), and Magus, or the land of the Normans. These countries are, for the most part, deserts, with a few inhabited towns, everlasting snow, and few tracts of any service. But Finmare has many towns, much cultivated land, and many living

creatures.

From these accounts, although they are to us rather obscure and unintelligible, we may with certainty conclude, that the Arabians had no despicable knowledge of Scandinavia; and how are they, Edrisi excepted, to have obtained this knowledge unless by means of trade, not immediately with Scandinavia itself, but through the medium of commerce with Russia and Balgaria? That the Arabians and the Southern Asiatics in general, came, traded, and resided in these two countries, especially in the first, I trust has been so incontrovertibly proved from the preceding pages, that it will not be necessary to dwell longer upon the subject. That, on the other hand,

Scandinavia, through the whole of the middle ages, stood in the most intimate commercial relation with Archangel, (Biarmeland), and the countries lying upon the Gulph of Finland, (Garderike), every page of our Sagas and Chronicles informs us, so that we need not here examine that question; we shall, however, here adduce some facts, which prove that it was least of all or by no means Russian productions, for the Scandinavians had then as good among themselves, but pearls, silk, splendid cloths, weapons, and many other South Asiatic commodities, which they brought from thence; so that it appears, at the same time, that silk was in ancient times of much more frequent occurrence than in the southern countries of Europe.

In Alfs Saga, mention is made of Hiorlef, the king of Hordiland, and of an expedition which he made to Biarmeland, in order to gain riches. We are informed in the Heimskringla, that the Danes plundered, in the sixth century, towards the east, by which is generally understood Esthonia and Russia. Saxo Gramaticus speaks of Danish merchants, who traded with and went to Russia in the time of Halfdan, father of king Harold Kilditand, which shows that all our forefathers' expeditions were not of a predatory kind: the same mentions Simmond, a warrior of Sigtuna, who was accustomed to buy and sell, and was, consequently, a merchant, and probably not the only one in that city, which lay conveniently for commerce, and was the residence of the Swedish kings. The Swedish king's son, says a Saga, made a mercantile voyage for his father, with two ships, to the eastward, or to Russia, whither the commerce of our forefathers in early times appears principally to have been directed. Russia is frequently in our ancient volumes called Greece, because the Christian religion was introduced there, towards the end of the tenth century, by the Greeks; from which period there has always been a close connexion between the two people. The reason why our ancestors went so frequently to Russia was, because the Russian kings, and the most eminent of the people, were of Varegian (i. e.) of Scandinavian blood; whence we find that both royal families united themselves with one another by marriage, and that exiled northern princes took refuge in Russia.

Torfous relates, that Harold Haarfager sent his trusty Hauk Habrok with a ship to Russia, to fetch certain commodities. Hauk arrived just at the time when the market was held, to which a vast concourse of people, from different countries, had come; and he bought, for money, a valuable upper garment, adorned with gold, the like of which had not hitherto been seen in Norway. In the Saga of Thordi Hredii, mention is made of an Icelander who lived in the tenth century, called Skinnabiörn, because he was accustomed to sail to the eastward. We are informed in the Hirmskringla of a rich man (who lived in the tenth century) called Lodin, who often sailed to Esthonia for trade, and had his ship always laden with goods for that country, which he probably exchanged for others.

Upon the universal introduction of Christianity into the north, about the eleventh century, commerce was very much improved, for hereditary piracy was gradually abolished, so that the inhabitants could devote themselves to the arts of peace. The soil was in consequence better cultivated. Towns were here and there erected, and arts and sciences were, in process of time, introduced by foreigners. Denmark and Norway then likewise received their first coinage; at least this is true respecting Denmark. The town of Slesvig was the richest in Denmark; it carried on a great commerce with Russia. Bornholm was, as Adam of Bremen testifies, a place of rendezvous and haven for all the ships that went thither. Under Svend Estritzen, Roeskilde had an extensive trade; among other proofs of this, there lay then many ships that were bound to the eastern countries, (Esthonia, Russia, ued Livonia). The Danes likewise traded with Russia, for Adam asserts that king Svend, by means of many presents, induced a merchant to build a church there. In the Hirmskringla, there is mentioned, under the reign of St Olaf, a merchant, who sailed to and traded with Russia, and purchased there for the king, costly garments and a splendid tablecloth. Galland was a rendezvous for the Russian traders; which circumstance probably gave the first occasion to the foundation of the powerful city Visby, which, however, did not reach its highest prosperity,

In

until in the twelfth century, when Sleswig had lost all its trade in Svend Grathe's time, and the town of Sigtuna was entirely destroyed. Nor did the Norwegians neglect to trade with Biarmiland (Archangel), as may be seen from the voyage made by Thorer Hund and his companions thither. After the murder of St Oluf, Svend, the son of Canute the Great, became king of Norway. In his reign king Jarisleif of Russia forbade all commerce between his kingdom and Norway, because the Norwegians had murdered their king, with whom he was on terms of friendship. The circumstance that king Oluf's coffin was covered with embroidered work, shews that there was foreign commerce. the battle with the Vandals, king Magnus, the son of Olaf, was dressed in a red silk robe, over which was a coat of mail. In Adam of Bremen's description of Norway, it is said, that there are found in it, bears, wild oxen, and elks, as likewise in Sweden; but wild oxen are found only in Slavonia and Russia; whereas Norway alone has black foxes, white hares, martens, and bears, which live under water. It was principally under the government of Olaf Kyrre, where the country enjoyed peace and was prosperous, that foreign fine cloths, especially silk ones, trimmed with gold, came into use; and the Hirmskringla under the reign of Magnus Barfod, son of Olaf, mentions many Russian dresses that had been brought from Asia, and partly also from Greece, where the manufactures of silk had been established as early as the reign of the Emperor Justinian.

It is therefore undeniable, that the Scandinavians carried on a very considerable trade with Russia during the middle ages. It now only remains for us to show what commodities they conveyed thither, and with what they paid in return for those they purchased; for trade was transacted on their part most frequently by barter, because it was not till long after the introduction of Christianity that coined money came into use in the North. From the above it appears, that what they imported from Russia were almost entirely luxurious, which were not of Russian, but of Asiatic growth, namely, costly linen, and especially silk dresses, frequently adorned with