that number, and its proper natives number but a mere fraction. Its splendor is recognized only in its ruins. Yet it is, even in its present abasement, by no means an insignificant state: its condition, social and political, has much improved of late years, and many institutions which tend to foster a progressive civilization, are again being perfected. A brief history of such a country cannot but be acceptable.

The origin of the Egyptian nation, says M'Culloch, and the history of their native princes, are involved in the greatest obscurity and uncertainty. This much, however, is established beyond the possibility of doubt that the Egyptians had attained to great wealth and civilization, and had established a regular, well-organized, and (if I may estimate it at its results) wiselycontrived government, while the greatest number of the surrounding nations were involved in the grossest barbarism. At length, however, Cambyses, king of Persia, added Egypt to his other provinces. It continued. attached to Persia for 193 years, though often in open rebellion to its conquerors. Alexander the Great had little difficulty in effecting its conquest; and it has been inferred from his foundation of Alexandria, which soon became the centre of an extensive commerce, that he intended to establish in it the seat of the government of his vast empire. On the death of Alexander, Ptolemy, son of Lagus, became master of the country. Under this able prince and his immediate successors, Egypt recovered the greatest portion of its ancient prosperity, and was for three centuries the favored seat of commerce, art, and science.

The feebleness and indolence of the last sovereigns of the Macedonian dynasty facilitated the conquest of Egypt by the Romans: Augustus possessed himself of it after a struggle of some duration, and for the next 666 years it belonged to the Roman and Greek empires, constituted their most valuable province, and was for a lengthened period the granary, as it were, of Rome. In 640 Egypt submitted to the victorious Amrou, general of the Khalif Omer, under whose successors it continued until 771, when the Turcomans expelled the Khalifs. These again were in their turn expelled, in 1250, by the Mamelukes. The latter raised to the throne one of their own chiefs, with the title of Sultan; and this new dynasty reigned over Egypt till 1517, when the Mamelukes were totally defeated, and the last of their sultans put to death by the Turkish sultan, Selim. The conqueror did not, however, entirely suppress the Mameluke government, but merely reconstructed it on a new basis, and placed at its head a pasha appointed by him, self, who presided over a council of 24 Mameluke beys or chiefs. So long as the Ottoman sultans preserved their original power and authority, this form of government, though about the worst that could have been devised, had the interests of the country been ever so little attended to, answered their purpose of preserving Egypt in dependence, and of drawing from it supplies of men and money; but the power of the pashas declined with that of their masters; and latterly the whole executive authority centered in the beys, who, except upon rare occasions, paid little more than a nominal deference to the orders of the Sultan.

This state of things continued till 1798, when a French army, commanded by Napoleon, landed in Egypt. The Mameluke force having been annihilated or dispersed in a series of engagements with the French, the latter succeeded in subjugating the country. Napoleon having returned to France, the French in Egypt were attacked, in 1801, by a British army, by which they were defeated, and obliged to enter into a convention for the vacuation of the country. The British having not long after evacuated

Egypt, it relapsed into its former state of anarchy and barbarism, from which it was at last rescued by the good fortune and ability of Mahomed Ali, the late pasha, whose history is given in a former paragraph, and whose deeds are of too recent date to require recapitulation in the present connection. In 1830 he attained supreme power, and subsequently added to his dominions, Syria, and Mecca and Yemen, in Arabia, and other extensive provinces; but was compelled in 1840, by the interference of the great powers of Europe, to confine his permanent dominion to Egypt and its natural dependencies.

NUBIA.

NUBIA lies immediately south of Egypt, and extends to the northern frontier of Abyssinia, and eastward to the Red Sea. Nubia never formed a separate political division, but has, on the contrary, been divided among a great number of tribes, of different lineage, and contained in its limits several cotemporaneous independent states; of late years, however, it has all been subjected to the dominion of the Pasha of Egypt, and garrisoned by his troops. Strictly speaking, however, it is only the northern part of this region that is called Nubia, the more southerly districts, above Wady Halfa, were formerly known as the Kingdom of Sennaar, and are now called by the Turks, "Bilad-es-Soudan," or the country of the Blacks, a name, however, which they extend as far west as Bornou, including many countries not subject to the Pasha. Area, 360,000 square miles.

The greater part of the country consists of frightful deserts, and it is only on the borders of the Nile, and the several tributaries of that river, and along the coast of the Red Sea, that cultivation is possible. That which is called the Desert of Nubia extends from the east of the Nile, from Assouan to Gooz. It is a region of deep sands and sharp stones, but contains hills rising sometimes 1,000 feet, and is interspersed with wadies or valleys, that afford a supply of water, and support some trees, shrubs, and grass. In several places the ground is covered with salt, and studded with masses of granite, jasper, and marble. Now and then occurs a grove of stunted acacias, or tufts of colocynth and senna; and the savage inhabitants are constantly ambushed, waiting for the unwary traveller. The western desert, less arid and extensive, is called Bahionda. Between these two wildernesses lies the valley of the Nile, which, though here deprived of the advantages of the inundations, contains, nevertheless, some districts, and more particularly islands, where a high degree of fertility rewards the industry of those who raise by artificial means the waters to irrigate the fields. The southern parts of the country watered by the Tacazze, the Azrek, and the Abiad, presents a very different appearance. Immense savannahs, wide boundless forests of gigantic grass, and thickets of mimosas, are the retreat of lions, tigers, and hyenas. Further south the plains are bordered by mountains of picturesque forms, but low and isolated on the immense savannahs.

The climate is very hot, and during a great part of the year the country is burned up with intolerable heat. The thermometer sometimes reaches 119 Fahr. in the shade. The rainy season lasts from June to September,

The northern limit, however,

covering the southern country with verdure. of the tropical rains is about 18° N. latitude, and the tract of country between that and Thebes is said to be the driest on the globe, and probably one of the hottest. The productions of the country are not in any great variety. The durrah and the bammia are the principal sorts of grain, though wheat and millet are cultivated. Two sorts of senna are exported; but the sugar-cane, which abounds along the Nile, is not turned to any account. The ebony tree predominates in the forests, and the acacia vera, and the mimosa-nilotica, extend from Egypt to Dar-Fur. The grass of the plains attains the height of 12 or 15 feet. Elephants, the rhinoceros, gazelles, ostriches, giraffes, and the usual African animals, are found within the limits of Nubia. Wild dogs and foxes are numerous. Several kinds of birds appear to be peculiar to this region, such as the occipital vulture, which inhabits the borders of both Nubia and Abyssinia. Buzzards, shrikes, thrushes, quails, and partridges, are also mentioned by travellers.

Nubia is inhabited by a great number of separate tribes. Northern Nubia is possessed by two independent nomadic races: the "Barabras," (called also Noubah, Kenouz, &c.,) who inhabit the districts west of the Nile; and the "Ababdes," a people differing entirely in customs, language, and dress, from the Arabs in Egypt, and who wander over the eastern deserts. TheSheygya" are a race of negroes, once peculiarly roving, fearless, and warlike, who occupy both banks of the Nile above Dongolah. The "Naabah" are a gentle race of negroes in Sennaar. They speak a soft sonorous language, totally different from that of their neighbors. They are idolators, and in some respects Sabians, for they always do homage to the moon. They are circumcised; but keep herds of swine, and eat pork freely. In 1504, a negro nation, till then unknown, came down the Abiad, and subdued the Nubians. They called themselves They called themselves "Shillouks," and founded the city of Sennaar. They were originally idolators, but in their intercourse with Egypt were converted to Islam. The people who dwell along the Red Sea appear to be of Arab origin, and are still in the lowest stage of savage life, living in caves, and deriving their principal support from fishing. Towards the north-east, however, near Foul Bay, are a people of somewhat better habits, called "Bishareens" or Bejahs, who lead a nomadic life, deriving abundant food from the milk and flesh of their camels, cattle, and sheep. They are believed to be of the race of Barabras or Berebers.

The recent Egyptian conquest has obliterated the old political divisions of the country, and as yet it is improbable that it has been divided anew into provinces and municipal districts. The whole may therefore be considered as forming a consolidated dependency, occupied and garrisoned by the troops of Egypt. The cities and towns are few and unimportant, but the remains of ancient buildings and cave temples along the Nile, chiefly in Lower Nubia, form very attractive objects of curiosity to travellers and antiquaries. DONGOLAH, on the right bank of the Nile, in 180 N. latitude, the largest, richest, and most populous city in Nubia during the middle ages, is now reduced to the size of a village of about 300 inhabitants. MARAKAH, or New Dongolah, built by the Mamelukes after their expulsion from Egypt, is a large and populous city, 70 miles north. In the river, to the north of Marakah, is the magnificent "Island of Argo," 30 miles long and 7 broad, formed by the rich alluvial deposits of the Nile, which produces grain, cotton, indigo, and dates. SENNAAR, lately the capital of the kingdom

of Sennaar, is now almost deserted, the people having emigrated to Aleis, ten day's journey to the south-east, at the period of the Egyptian conquest. The few who remain live in straw huts, with the exception of two or three slave merchants, whose houses are made of mud. It stands near the left bank of the Azrek, 13° 37′ N. latitude, and 33° 30′ E. longitude. KHartum, at the confluence of the Abiad and Azrek, is now the seat of government: it has sprung up since Soudan became subject to the Pasha, and contains about 15,000 inhabitants. SHENDY, further north, on the right bank of the Nile, is a town of about 7,000 or 8,000 inhabitants, but now almost in ruins. Before the Egyptian conquest it was the principal commercial mart of Nubia, and a great slave market. At AssoUR, a little village below Shendy, are the ruins of " Meroe," a city celebrated for its monuments, its commerce, its oracle of Ammon, and its pontiff king, chosen as was believed by the god himself, from among his priests; and a little further down the river is the island of "Kourgas," which contains three groups of ancient mausoleums, of a pyramidal form. Below the junction of the Tacazze, on the right bank of the Nile, is Berber, with 8,000 inhabitants, which is the rendezvous of the slave merchants from Sennaar and Khartum. DERR, chief town of Lower Nubia, is a small place, with an active population, 130 miles above Assouan. SOUAKIN, the only seaport of Nubia, is situated on the west coast of the Red Sea, in 19° 1' N. latitude. The town is built partly on an island and partly on the main, and contains about 8,000 inhabitants, who are chiefly Arabs or Berebers. It has one of the best and most frequented harbors on the Red Sea; and is one of the most commercial places under the authority of the Pasha, and a great slave market. ABOUSAMBAL, On the left bank of the Nile, about 50 miles above Derr, is remarkable for its remains of antiquity. Temples excavated in the rock, and other magnificent buildings of ancient date, testify to its former magnificence. Similar remains are found at Debod, Kalabshe, Girshe, Dakki, Derr, Eshke, Soleb, and Jebel-el-Barkel. The last is a lofty eminence near Merawe, which presents, partly cut out of the rocks, and partly built along its sides, seven or eight temples, the largest of which may vie with the most magnificent monuments of Egypt. Near these temples are 17 pyramids of no great size; but at El-Bellal, on the opposite or left side of the river, at the distance of seven miles, is a very magnificent range of pyramids, inferior only to the great piles of Egypt.

Fazuola, Kordofan, Soudan, &c.

Beyond the limits of what is considered Nubia, the pasha of Egypt also possesses FAZUOLA, a province of Abyssinia to the south of Sennaar; and KORDOFAN, to the west of the Bahr-el-Abiad. Kordofan is, properly speaking, only an assemblage of oases, or wahs, separated by vast deserts from Dar-Fur and the Bahr. The greater part of its inhabitants are negroes, somewhat civilized, and principally employed in agriculture. The remainder consists in Dongolese, who are devoted to commerce, and of Arabs, who wander over its deserts. Almost every person in Kordofan is a slavemerchant. "El-Obeid," the chief town, once a flourishing commercial station, is now a mass of ruins, but its name remains attached to three stations situated near the site which it occupied. The population of the three is stated at 30,000.

The pasha's revenue in Soudan is derived from his monopolies of coffee, gold, indigo, gum-arabic, and hides; taxation on the water-wheels; letting

the customs; and his purchase of cattle and camels. But it is said that his Soudan expenses exceed the proceeds, and that he holds the country under the present system of tyranny, because he has never forgiven the fate of Ismail Pasha, his son, who was burned to death at Shendy.

The greater part of our account of Egypt and Nubia has been collated from Dr. Bowring's elaborate "Report on Egypt and Candia," London, 1840.

Down to the year 1821 the people of Nubia and the other provinces were independent, living under their own meleks, or chiefs; but at that period Ibrahim Pasha reduced them to a dependency of Egypt. The same system of millitary despotism, and oppressive taxation that exists in Egypt, has been extended to these countries; but it is a question whether the people are more heavily taxed than formerly, while in other respects their condition is improved.

any

ABYSSINIA.

(Itiopia, Abyss.-—Agazi, or Ghez-Habesh, Arab.)

ABYSSINIA, since the dissolution of the kingdom, cannot be said to have definite boundaries. The term is applied to a vast territory, watered by the upper branches of the Nile, and situated between 70 and 16° N. latitude, and 33° and 45° E. longitude. The name of "Habesh," from which Europeans have formed "Abyssinia," is an Arabic term, meaning a mixed people, and scornfully spurned by the natives.

Abyssinia forms a table-land, inclining to the north-west, with two great declivities on the east and south sides, the former towards the Red Sea, and the latter towards the interior of Southern Africa. This table-land is intersected by mountains, but nothing is known respecting their direction and height. Besides the Nile and its branches, already described, the only rivers worthy of notice are the Chaala and the Hawash, both of which terminate in the lake Assal, which is said to be 750 feet below the level of the sea; and the Zebee, which drains a portion of the southern region, and probably falls into the Indian Ocean, near Zanzibar. There are several lakes, the largest and best known of which is Dembea, near the centre of Abyssinia. It receives the waters of a prodigious number of streams from the mountains which embosom it; but its principal feeder is the upper branch of the Bahr-el-Azrek, which enters it on the west side, and flows out again at the south-east corner. The lake contains eleven islands, the largest of which is called Tzana, whence the lake itself is sometimes called Bahr Tzana, or the Lake of Tzana.

The elevation of the country, and its abundance of waters, render the climate much cooler than that of Nubia and Egypt In some parts the temperature of summer is not more than comfortable; but in the lower districts, the effects of a suffocating heat, combined with the exhalations of stagnant water, occasion several fatal diseases. The nature of the country, however, greatly modifies the influence of the latitudinal climate. Thus in the east, below the mountains on the borders of the Red Sea, the rainy season only begins when it ceases in the interior, and that region is burned up at other times with intolerable heat.

The productions of the country are very various. Abyssinia is said to