GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF
DESCRIPTION O

ASIA.

ASIA, the original seat of mankind, the largest, most early civilized, and in many respects the most interesting of the grand divisions of the earth, now claims our attention. Including the islands which belong geographically to it, this vast country lies between the parallels of 11° south, and 780 north latitude; and between the meridians of 26° and 190° east longitude. The greatest length from Cape Taimura in Siberia, to Cape Romania in Malaya, in the direction of the meridian, exceeds 5,300 miles; and the greatest breadth from east to west, along the fortieth parallel, or from Baba Burun in Asia Minor, to the east coast of Corea, is about 5,600 miles. The superficial area is about 17,500,000 square miles, or nearly as large as the Americas and Europe together.

Asia on the north is washed by the Arctic Sea, and on the north-east it approaches the American continent, from which it is separated only by the narrow Strait of Behring; on the east by the Pacific Ocean; on the south by the Indian Ocean, which lies between it and Australia; and on the west it is co-terminous with Europe and Africa. The boundary between Asia and Africa is formed by the Gulf of Aden, the Strait of Babelmandel, where the continents are only about 16 miles apart, the Red Sea and the Isthmus of Suez, where both continents unite for about 70 miles. It is separated from Europe by the Mediterranean Sea, the Archipelago, the Strait of the Dardanelles, the Sea of Marmora, the Strait of the Bosphorus, the Black Sea, the crest of the Caucasus mountains, the Caspian Sea to the Oural river, and thence up its mid-stream to its source in the Ouralian mountains, which latter forms the remainder of the boundary line to the Gulf of Kara, in the Arctic Ocean.

To the south and south-east of this continent is the greatest of all Archipelagoes, containing many thousands of large and small islands. These belong partly to Asia and partly to Australia, but they are not separated by any natural boundary. When the Portuguese and Spaniards began to be acquainted with the islands of India, they conquered or settled those only which were supposed to be likely to repay the expense and trouble. These were then, and are still considered as belonging to Asia. The others, which did not offer such advantages, and were not settled or visited at that time, are now included in Australia. In this way Japan, Formosa, the PhilipVOL. II.

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pines, the Moluccas, and that long chain of islands which on the east begins with Timorlant, and on the west terminates with Java, are considered as belonging to Asia; while the numerous islands dispersed between the Moluccas and New Guinea, and lying at a short distance from the former, are included in Australia.

Every different formation and surface is met with in Asia. The northern portion, including Siberia, forms an extensive plain, rising gradually from the Arctic Sea, intersected by a number of large rivers, and exposed without shelter to the piercing blasts from the north. The central portion consists of a series of elevated plains and mountains, from which rivers flow in every direction to the surrounding seas; while that portion which stretches along the Indian Ocean, including China, Hindostan, Persia, and Arabia, presents a comparatively level country. Among the numerous mountains that intersect the surface, four great chains or systems may be distinguished stretching nearly parallel to each other in a direction from east to west, and named by geographers the ALTAI; the TEEAN-SHAN; the KIVAN-LUN, and the HIMALAYA. These, with their ramifications, occupy the greater part of the continent.

The "Chain of the Altai" extends from the sources of the river Irtish to the Sea of Okhotsk. Between the Irtish and Obi the chain consists of an extensive mass of high rocks, furrowed by narrow valleys and rapid rivers. Its culminating point lies north-west of Lake Ubsa, to the east of which the chain divides into three ranges, of which the middle range takes the name of Tang-nou, and extends eastward to the Lake of Kossogol; the most northerly is named Sayans-kean, and the most southerly Ulangom-ula. These three ranges, between 98° and 102° east longitude, join the mountains which encompass the Lake Baikal, and are usually called the Baikalian Mountains. Farther east a chain shoots eastward, under the name of Kentei, and the mountains of Daouria, and afterwards joins the Iablonnoikrebet (chain of Apples,) the Khing-han, and the Aldan Hills, which, stretching along the west side of the Sea of Okhotsk, under the name of Stanovoi, extend to the north-eastern extremity of Asia, and terminate at Behring's Straits. The mean latitude of the Altai is between 50° and 51° 30′ north. No part of the chain attains a greater elevation than 11,500 feet. The most westerly of its higher summits, the "Holborukha," loses its snow in May, but is covered again by the end of July; farther east is a loftier summit, the "Skhtskhebenûkha," but the highest is the " Bielûkha,” which rises to the height of 11,000 feet above the level of the sea, and 7,000 above the surrounding mountains, and is covered with perpetual snow. From this lofty mass a range branches off to the east-south-east, extending, as before observed, to the extremity of Asia. Westward from Lake Zaisang the chain of the Altai is prolonged, under the parallel of 49° or 50° by a series of isolated hills, and groups of small mountains, through an extent of 540 miles, as far as the Steppe of Kirghiz, and ends abruptly about ten degrees to the eastward of the meridian of the Ourals. Among the secondary chains connected with the Altai are:-the "Mountains of Kolyvan,” which are rich in gold and silver; the "Great Altai" of Humboldt, which unites the Altai with the Teean-shan; and the Tarbagatai chain, (about 6,000 feet high,) which extends to the south-west of the lakes Zaisang and Alaktougul, and separates them from Lake Balkashi for nearly 500 miles. The Tarbagatai chain is considered as forming the north-western boundary between the Russian and Chinese Empires. The great volcanic mountains

of Kamtschatka may be considered either as belonging to the Altaian system, or perhaps more properly to the maritime or Japanese mountains. The second great chain, called by the Chinese "Teean-shan" or Sky Mountains, extends from west to east nearly along the 42d parallel. The culminating point appears to be that mass of hills, remarkable for three snow-clad peaks, which lies nearly in the centre of Asia, upon the confines of Kansu, in the Chinese Empire, about 85° east longitude. From this point the Teean-shan stretches eastward towards Barkoul, beyond which it suddenly falls to the level of the great desert of Cobi, but after an interruption of about ten degrees of longitude, another chain called "Gad-jar" or In-shan, appears at the bend of the Yellow River, following the same direction from west to east. About 112 the Gad-jar becomes confounded with a snowy chain called "Ta-hang," and with a chain running north and south under the name of "Khing-han-ula," which forms an union of the Teean-shan and the Altai. The chain which may be considered as the principal, stretches further to the east, and connects on one side with the "mountains of Corea," and on the other with the chain which extends along the coast Mandchuria. Westward from the grand culminating point the Teean-chan is prolonged, to the north of Cashgar, under the name of "Mûz-tagh" or Mûsart, and ultimately turning south, sinks into the plains of Bokhara and Mawer-ul-nahr. Besides the divisions of the chain already mentioned, there are several secondary ranges connected with Teean-shan as the Ala-shan; the Ala-tagh, and the Ming-bulak.

The chain of "Kwan-lun" or Kuen-lun, extends nearly along the 35th parallel, commencing about 70° east longitude. From this point the chain runs eastward, and after crossing Thibet in two branches, under the names of Tsung-ling, to the north, and Ngari, Zzang and Ui to the south, forms, in eastern Thibet, the Kwan-lun of the Chinese, a mountain mass of prodigious height, which in their mythological geography is called the king of mountains, the highest part of the whole earth, the mountain which touches the pole and supports the sky; it is, in short, the Olympus of the gods of the Buddhists and the Tao-se. This great mass is supported on the north by the snowy chain of Nan-shan and Kilian-shan, which also extends west and east. Between the Nan-shan and the Teean-shan the mountains of Tangut bound the edge of the desert of Cobi; and that and other contiguous chains form the country of Kham, western Setchuen, and Yun-nan. In Thibet the Kwan-lun is connected with the Himalaya by several lofty chains, whose peaks are covered with everlasting snows.

The Himalaya mountains" extend in a general direction north-west and south-east. From the ineridian of 69° east, where it is connected with the Hindoo-koh, the chain extends to the east and south-east along the northern frontier of India, Assam and Birmah, and penetrates into the Chinese province of Yun-nan, where, to the westward of Yung-chang, it exhibits sharp and snowy peaks. Hence it extends through China to the Pacific Ocean, which it reaches a little north of Amoy, and is further prolonged through the island of Formosa, in which the peaks almost reach the line of perpetual Westward from 699 the chain of the Himalaya forms or is connected with the "Hindoo-koh" or Indian Caucasus, and the "Paropamisan mountains," which extend westward over about six degrees of longitude, and then inclining to the north-west, appear to terminate before reaching the Caspian Sea. In the same direction, however, after a short interruption, the "chain of Elbûrz" appears, extending along the south shore of that sea, and connecting the Caucasus and the mountains of Armenia. The culminating

snow.

points of the Himalayas are found on the frontiers of India, between 760 and 90° east, where they present a series of snow clad peaks, many of which are from 4 to 5 miles in perpendicular height, and one of them, the "Dhwalagiri," rises to the enormous elevation of 5 miles. The Himalayas, though running nearly in the same direction, are not exactly parallel with the Kwan-lun; but approach them so nearly in the meridian of Attok and Jellalabad, that between Cabool, Cashmere, Ladakh, and Badakhshan, the Himalayas seem to form only a single mass of mountains with the Hindoo-koh and the Tsung-ling. In like manner the space between the Himalayas and the Kwan-lun, further east, is more occupied by secondary chains and isolated groups of mountains, than the table-lands between the Altai and Teean-shan, and between the latter and the Kwan-lun. Consequently Thibet and Kashi cannot properly be compared, in respect of their geological structure, with the high longitudinal valleys which are situated between the eastern and western Andes. Nor is the level of these countries equal throughout; for the mildness of the winters and the cultivation of the vine in the gardens of H'lassa, indicate the existence of deep valleys or circular depressions. The courses of the Indus and the Sanpoo, in opposite directions, also indicate a depression of Thibet to the north-west and the south-east. From this watershed, which is situated nearly in the meridian of the Jewahir and Mount Cailasa, the chain of Kara-korum-padishah stretches to the north-west towards the Tsûng-ling and the snowy chains of Hor and Zzang to the east. The Kara-korum chain forms the watershed between the affluents of the Indus on the one side, and the rivers of Yarkhand on the other. The "Hor," at its north-western extremity, is connected with the Kwan-lun, and its course from the eastern side is towards the Tengri-noor. The "Zzang" bounds the long valley of the Sanpoo, and extends from north to east towards the Neen-tsin-tangla-gangri, a very lofty mountain, which between H'lassa and the Tengri-noor terminates in mount Nem-shun-ûbashi. Between the meridians of Ghorka, Katmandhû and H'lassa, the Himalayas send off to the north, towards the right bank or southern border of the valley of the Sanpoo, several spurs covered with perpetual snow, the highest of which is the "Yaria-shamboy-gangri," (i. e. the snowy mountains in the country of the self-existing God,) to the westward of the Lake Yamruk-yumdzo, or Paltee.

Subordinate to the Himalayas and the Kwan-lun, the following chains may be mentioned:

1: The "Yung-ling," which, running north and south in a long line of snowy peaks, separates China from Thibet and joins the chain of "Pe-ling," which bounds Shansi to the south, and has several snowy summits. On the frontier of Honan it becomes lower, and runs north-west towards Shausi where it joins the Ta-hang. In Shansi itself a secondary chain, called "Loung," stretches from the Pe-ling to the Hoang-ho, where it rises to the snow line and unites with the Ala-shan. In general the Pe-ling marks the boundary of the basins of the rivers Hoang-ho and Yang-tse-kiang, terminating near the sea between their mouths. The Nan-ling, rising from the extremity of the Yun-ling, at a great distance from the Pe-ling, approaches the latter as it advances eastward, and sends off to the north-east several branches, which accompany the winding of the Yang-tse-kiang even to its mouth. The mountains of " Yan," to the north-west of Pekin, and the Ta-hang," to the west, in Shansi, appear to belong equally to the Teeanshan and the Kwan-lun.

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2: The "Sub-Himalayas," which extend along the south side of the great chain, and form with it the great valleys of Nepaul, Bootan, &c

3: The chain which, under the names of "Yomadoung” and “ Anapektomiou," extends from the upper end of the valley of Assam to Cape Negrais. 4: The "Birman-Siamese chain," which extends north and south, between the valleys of the Saluen and the Meinam, from the confines of Yunnan through the peninsula of Malaya to Cape Romania.

5: The "chain which traverses Laos" and forms the eastern boundary of Siam, separating the valley of the Meinam from that of the Maykuang. 6: The "Chain of An-nam," which forms the watershed between the afflu nts of the Maykuang and the numerous rivers of Tonkin and CochinChina.

7: The "chain of Suleiman," which extends from north to south nearly parallel to the river Indus, and whose branches form the numerous secondary chains which traverse Affghanistan and Beloochistan, losing themselves in the table-land of Kerman on the one side, and terminating at Cape Jask on the other. Its principal summits are, Suffeid-koh," west of Peshawer, about 14,000 feet above the level of the sea, and " Tukht-i-Suleiman," (31° 38' N. latitude,) 11,000 feet.

The highest peaks of the Himalayas are supposed to be those of " Dhwalagiri," nearly in the meridian of Benares, and "Chumulari," in Bootan; their elevation being calculated, though not exactly ascertained, at 28,000 feet. Further west various parts of the range have been approached, and even crossed by Europeans, and the elevation of the summits pretty nearly ascertained. The "Southern" or Hither Himalayas, which separate the feeders of the Sutlej from those of the Pabur, Roopir, and Andrytie, vary from 16,982 to 19,512 feet, and the passes from 15,000 to 16,000; the "Jumnotri peaks," or Bunderpooch mountains, from 20,122 to 21,155; “St. George," "St. Patrick," and the "Pyramid," above Gangoutri, 22,240, 22,385, and 20,966; "Roodra-Himala," 22,390; "Surga-Rooer," 23,441; a cluster extending from Kedarnath to Budrinath, six peaks, from 22,130 to 23,441, and the three contiguous peaks from 19,178 to 21,683; "Jewahir," four peaks, from 22,385 to 25,741; "Dhaibun," in Nepaul, 24,640,and "Gossainthan," also in Nepaul, 24,740 feet.

The "Bolor" or "Bulyt-tagh," (Cloudy Mountains,) extend in a direction transverse to that of the preceding chains, being connected with Tsûng-ling on the south, and united on the north to the chain which passes to the north-west of Cashgar, under the name of Cashgar-davan. Of the northern part of the chain very little is known; but, in its middle portion, it forms or consists of the table-land of Pamer or Pamir, which is elevated 15,600 feet above the level of the sea, and is overtopped by mountains which rise several thousand feet higher. From Pamer, a chain of very lofty mountains, the "Hindoo-koh," extends in a south-west direction, terminating with a lofty snow-capped mountain, named "Koh-i-baba," 48 miles west of Cabul, and being connected with the Himalayas at the valley of the Punjsheer, northeast of that city, forms the watershed between the basins of the Oxus and the Indus. From the same part of Pamer, the Bolor is continued almost straight south till it joins the Himalayas, separating in its progress the hill country of Chitral from Little Thibet; while a third branch extends in an easterly direction towards the chain of Kara-korum, which, as already mentioned, separates the basin of the Indus from that of the river Yarkhand. It thus appears that the chains of Hindoo-koh and Kara-korum may either be considered as diverging ranges of the Bolor-tagh, or as constituent parts of the western prolongation of the Kwan-lun. Though their elevation has not been ascertained by measurement, they appear to be much higher than