for a commercial station. It has regular streets and good houses. Near Sebastopol is the ancient CHERSONESUS, the site of the famous temple of the Tauric Artemis, where shipwrecked strangers were offered in sacrifice to the goddess; and MANGOUP KALEH, one of the most remarkable objects to be found in any country. This is a castle situated on a mountain inaccessibly precipitous, perfectly insolated, and surmounted with extensive. fortifications. The rock, moreover, has been cut into a variety of chambers, watch-towers, &c., affording a secure retreat for a garrison of several thousand men. It was the work of the ancient Greeks and the Genoese, but is now deserted. IENIKALEH (New Castle,) is a fortress which com

mands the entrance to the Sea of Azov.

The country of the Don Cossacks extends along the Don to the northeastward of the sea of Azov, and seems to have been acquired by its present inhabitants, a branch of the Little Russians, in the 16th century. It is an immense plain, destitute of hills; some parts of it are fruitful; but, in general, the soil is barren, agriculture is neglected, and little progress has been made in the useful arts. The Cossacks used to enjoy a great degree of political liberty, under a democratic government, at the head of which is an Ataman or Hetman. They are liable in military service to the Czar, and are particularly useful as light horse, and in irregular warfare. The only town worth notice in their country is TCHERKASK, which is built upon piles in a marsh, and contains 3,000 houses, which the inhabitants are unwilling to leave for the new town of Novo-TCHERKASK, more recently built in a healthier situation.

VILNA, OF WILNA, 430 miles S. W. by S. of St. Petersburg, and 200 E. of Koningsberg, is a large and neat town, at the confluence of the Vilia and the Vilenka, and surrounded by picturesque hills. It is the ancient capital of Lithuania, and was for many years the seat of a flourishing university, which has been recently reduced to two chairs, one of medicine and the other of theology, and stripped of its rich endowments, libraries, and museums. Its cathedral of St. Stanislaus is one of the finest churches in Poland, and occupies the site of the temple of Perkunas, the Jupiter of the Lithuanians. Population, 56,000. KAZAN, or KASAN, is a large, wellbuilt city, the greater part being situated upon rising ground, not far from the Volga. It is the principal entrepôt of the trade of Siberia, and the seat of considerable manufactures. It is the see of an archbishop; possesses one of the four great ecclesiastical academies of the empire, with 16 professors, and about a thousand students; a university and several other literary and scientific establishments. Kazan was formerly the capital of an independent Turkish or Tartar kingdom, conquered by the Czars in the sixteenth century; and the Tartars still form a considerable, and not the least industrious part of its inhabitants. Population, 50,000.

ASTRAKHAN, formerly the capital of a Tartar kingdom, is built on an island in the Volga, by which it is accessible for vessels from the Caspian Sea. The houses are almost all built of wood, and the streets are irregular, dirty and unpaved; but its numerous churches, fine orchards and vineyards, its extensive suburbs, and its kremlin or citadel, give it a fine appearance at a little distance. It is the see of a Russian and of an Armenian archbishop, and contains a board of admiralty, which superintends all the shipyards and fisheries on the river and its shores. Favoured by its situation, which enables it to communicate with the richest and most fertile parts of the empire, and with the shores of the Caspian Sea, Astrakhan has become the entrepôt of the trade carried on by the Russians with Persia, Turkestan,

and India. The citizens are also distinguished for their industry; of which the manufacture of cotton stuffs, silk, morocco, chagrin, tallow, and dyeing, are the principal branches. It has an ecclesiastical seminary, a gymnasium, and a botanic garden. Population, 40,000.

ORENBURG is a fine, well fortified town, the entrepôt of the trade with Bokhara. It possesses an ecclesiastical seminary, with 8 professors, and a seminary for the army. TROITSK is a fortified town, which also shares in the trade with Bokhara. ZLATOUST is a large village, with iron forges and gold mines recently discovered. MIASK is a village, with copper mines and gold washings. ILETSKI is a small fortified town, with a rich mine of rock salt, considered to be the best in Russia. It contains, also, since 1817, a number of smiths, jewellers, watchmakers, and other artizans, who carry their work to great perfection. OURALSK, the capital of the Cossacks of the Oural, is a large town, chiefly dependent upon the produce of the fisheries.

POLAND.

The KINGDOM OF POLAND formerly included a very large territory, extending from the eastern frontier of Germany to the borders of Muscovy, about 700 miles, and from the shores of the Baltic to the Carpathian mountains and the river Dniester, on the borders of Turkey. The Polané, a Slavonic people (so called from their fertile plains) early acquired a certain degree of celebrity, and established the centre of their power, first at Kruswitza (A. D. 846,) then at Gnesen, and latterly at Cracow. Christianity was introduced among them by their King Mieczislaus I. in 965; but his son, Boleslaus the Great, deserves more properly to be considered the true founder of the Polish monarchy, the limits of which he extended from the Dnieper to the Elbe, and from the Baltic to the Danube and the Theiss. While all the other Slavonic nations were subjugated by Turks or Tartars, Magyars, Greeks or Germans, the Poles preserved their independence, and long stood forth as the advance guard of Europe against the Infidels. The kingdom was at last completely disorganised by its feudal aristocracy and elected king, that its neighbors took advantage of its weakness, produced by dissension and anarchy, to divide it among themselves. The first dismemberment took place in 1766, and the second in 1792, when the Polish territory was finally divided among the Empress of Russia, the Emperor of Germany, and the King of Prussia. During the wars of the French Revolution, various changes took place in the arrangement and boundaries of their respective divisions; but they were settled at last on their present footing in 1815; nearly two thirds of the kingdom being then confirmed to Russia. Cracow, the ancient capital, was declared a free city, under the protection, or to speak correctly, under the domination of the three sovereigns; but in 1846 it was taken possession of by Austria, and annexed to that empire with the consent of the protecting powers. The Poles of the present day call themselves Polak, in the plural Polacy (Polatzy,) and their country Polska.

WARSAW (Warszawa of the Poles, Warschau of the Germans) is situated on the left bank of the Vistula, 170 miles S. E. by S. of Danzig, in the middle of a vast sandy plain. The city proper is ill built; but the suburbs are fine and spacious, with wide, straight, and well-paved streets. PRAGA, the largest suburb, is situated on the right bank of the river, across which there is a bridge of boats. The royal palace, Zamek Krolewski, is a vast building; and, besides it, there is a great number of other fine palaces and

public buildings; a cathedral, dedicated to St. John, and numerous other churches, with many scientific and literary establishments. In the immediate neighborhood of the city is the superb castle of Villanow, which belonged to the great king John Sobieski, and where he died in 1696. Population, 150,000. KALISCH is one of the finest cities in Poland. It has important cloth-works, a military school, a lyceum, with a valuable library and museum, and a Catholic bishop. CZENSTOKHOWA, near Kalisch, is a small town, with a sanctuary of the Virgin Mary, which is visited every year by a crowd of pilgrims. LUBLIN is a large episcopal city, with some fine buildings, and a considerable trade. PULAWY, near Lublin, was noted for the magnificent residence of the princes Czartoryski, who spent a great part of their revenues in rendering it one of the finest places in Europe; but it was sacked and burned in the last war.

The ancients had very little acquaintance with the vast countries included in the empire of Russia. The monarchy is usually regarded as having been founded by Rurik, about 862; his dominions, and those of his immediate successors, comprising Novgorod, Kief, and the surrounding country. In 980-1015, Vladimir introduced Christianity, and founded several cities and schools. But, from this period down to 1237, when the country was overrun by the Tartars, Russia, with few exceptions, was the theatre of civil war. In 1323 the seat of government was transferred to Moscow; and in 1481 the Tartars were finally expelled. In 1613, the house of Romanoff, whence his present majesty is descended, was raised to the throne; and from this period the empire acquired strength and consis tency. Under Alexis Mikhailovitch, (1645–1676,) White Russia and Little Russia were conquered from the Poles, and the Cossacks of the Ukraine acknowledged the supremacy of the Czar; various internal improvements were effected, and the power of Russia began to be felt and feared by all her neighbors. At length, in 1606, Peter the Great ascended the throne, and the destinies of Russia and of the northern world were immediately changed. This prince, who has, probably, a better claim than any other that ever existed to the epithets of "great" and of "father of his country," gave to the arms of Russia a decided preponderance in the north of Europe; he also gave her a fleet; conquered large provinces on the Baltic; laid the foundations of the noble city which bears his name; and introduced among his people the arts, the literature, the customs, and, to some extent also, the laws and institutions of the more civilized European nations. The difficulties he had to encounter in his projects for remodelling and civilizing his dominions, were of the most formidable description; and could not have been overcome by any one possessed of less authority, or of a less stern decided character.

From this period Russia has progressively advanced in power and civilization. Under Catharine II., (1762-1796,) a princess of extraordinary talent, Russia acquired a vast accession of power, by her acquisitions in Poland and on the Black Sea, where she has now the same ascendancy as in the Baltic. The history of Russia, during the present century, is known to everybody. The attempt of Napoleon to dictate a peace to the Emperor Alexander, in the ancient capital of the Czars, led to the overthrow of his colossal power, and gave a vast accession of influence and consideration to Russia, which has been maintained and extended under the present emperor.

It would be idle to speculate upon the permanency of the present order of things in Russia. A great deal, in such an empire, depends on the per

sonal character of the sovereign. The present occupier of the throne has every quality-good sense, undaunted courage, great decision, and the utmost vigilance and activity-required in the ruler of such a country. But should the government fall into less able and skilful hands, it is not improbable that Russia may become the theatre of revolution and change, for which, at present, she certainly is not fitted.

The progressive advance of Russia has been the theme of much silly declamation, about the grasping, insatiable ambition of the nation. No doubt her rulers have the same desire to extend her territories as those of France, England, or any other power; but certainly they are not, in this respect, at all peculiar. In point of fact, however, by far the greater part of the territorial acquisitions of Russia have consisted of mere deserts, or of countries occupied by roving barbarians, and are worth little or nothing. Her really valuable acquisitions have been confined to those on the side of Poland and the Black Sea. Her conquests in this direction have added materially to her power; and it is but fair to add, that they have also added materially to the well-being and civilization of the inhabitants.

ITALY.

ITALY, lying between 360 and 47° north latitude, and between 50 and 19 east longitude, consists of two distinct portions-the continental and the insular the latter embracing of the three large islands of Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, with the smaller islands of Malta, Gozo, Comino, and others. The greatest length of the continental portion is 695 miles, but the breadth varies from 275 to less than 20 miles. The superficial area of the peninsula and islands together, is estimated at about 125,000 square miles. Italy is bounded on the north by Switzerland, the Tyrol, Styria, Carinthia, and Carniola; on the west and south-west by France and the Mediterranean Sea; on the east and north-east by the Adriatic or Gulf of Venice; and on the south-east by the Ionian Sea.

The northern border of Italy is formed by the stupendous range of the Alps, which extends in a long curve, from the shores of the Mediterranean, near Genoa, to the head of the Adriatic. The Alps are connected with the Appenines, an inferior but no less important chain, at their southern bend, in the vicinity of Nice. This chain runs parallel with the shores of the Gulf of Genoa, and thence through the whole peninsular part of Italy to the Straits of Messina, dividing the country into narrow lowland strips, which extend from the mountains to the adjacent seas. Between the Alps and the Appenines, in northern Italy, lies the great plain of Lombardy, which is traversed through its whole length by the Po, and watered by innumerable streams, which pour down from the mountains. The length of this plain, from east to west, is about 250 miles, with an average breadth of 50 miles. In the west it has an elevation of about 300 feet above the sea-level; but it gradually sinks towards the east, and terminates in a low, sandy shore. The fertility of this region is unsurpassed, and its cultivation has, for ages, been admirable. The mountain ranges, by which it is almost bordered, rise abruptly with a steep acclivity, and enclose

among their branches and offsets many fine valleys, some of which contain considerable lakes, which serve as reservoirs for the water, which is turned to account in irrigating the country. The Appenines, in their progress southward, also enclose a number of valleys, narrow and less fertile; further south, however, their branches do not always reach the sea, but leave, in some places, spacious plains, such as the Tuscan and Roman "Maremme," a singular tract, with an undulating surface, which extends along the Mediterranean, from Pisa to Terracina, about 200 miles in length, and of various breadths; the Tavogliera de la Puglia, which is a very wide plain, destitute of trees, and of inferior fertility; and the volcanic region of Terra de Lavord, one of the most fertile districts in the world.

The coasts of Italy are very irregular, and form a large number of bays, gulfs, and straits. The Gulf of Genoa, south of Sardinia, extends seven miles inland, and affords one of the finest and most beautiful harbors in Europe. There is, in the midst of this gulf, a spring of fresh water, rising from the bottom of the sea. The gulfs of Gaeta, Naples, Salerno, Policastro, and St. Eufemia, on the west coast of Naples; the gulfs of Taranto and Squillace, on the south coast; and on the east coast, those of Manfredonia and Venice, in the Adriatic, are all more or less extensive, and fine harbors. The Faro, or Straits of Messina, divide Naples from Sicily, and present great variation in width, from 3,970 to 13,187 feet. The currents are numerous and uncertain. In settled weather there is a central stream, which runs alternately north and south, six hours each way, at the rate of from two to five knots. On each shore there is a counter-stream, at uncertain distances from the beach, often forming eddies to the central current but in stormy weather the lateral tides are scarcely perceptible, while the main stream increases so as to send, at intervals, slight whirlpools to each shore. The proverbial terrors the ancients had of passing between Scylla and Charybdis, would appear to be almost imaginary. The celebrated Charybdis, now called Galofaro, is close to the harbor of Messina, and is an agitated water, from 70 to 90 fathoms deep, circling in quick eddies, which seem to be caused by the meeting of the harbor and other lateral currents with the main stream. Small craft are sometimes endangered by it, and ships of war wheel round upon its surface; but with caution there is very little danger or inconvenience attending it. There is a curious atmospheric phenomenon observed occasionally in this strait, called by the sailors"Fata Morgana." It is a species of mirage, occasioned by a peculiar state of the atmosphere, during which, from certain situations, the opposite coast is seen produced in curious forms, as if upon an aerial screen. The channel of Piombino separates the island of Elba from the main, and the Strait of Bonifacio those of Corsica and Sardinia. The Strait of Otranto divides Naples from the opposite shore of Albania. The principal capes and headlands of the peninsula are:-Monte d'Argentaro; Cape Linaro, Cape d'Anzo, Monte Circello, Miseno, Campanella, and Cape Vatiano, all on the west coast; and Spartivento, Stilo, Rizzuto, Cimiti, Nau, and Leuca, on the south-east coast. In the larger islands there are also a number of capes, which are celebrated in history, and which exert great influence on the direction of the currents in this part of the Mediterranean.

The larger Italian islands, Sicily, Sardinia, and Corsica, are mentioned in the descriptions of the nations to which they belong. The small islands Malta, Gozo, Comino, and Gorgona, lie a short distance, west by south, ghorn. The sardel and anchovy fisheries are pursued by the inhabi