manufactures, carried on in families, embrace almost all articles of general use; and where other factories exist, they are on that small scale which bars every effort at improvement.

Few countries are more favorably situated for commerce, and the Danes have not been unmindful of their natural advantages. This in fact is the only branch that can be said to flourish. The principal exports consist of corn, butter, meal, cheese, horses and beeves, tallow, hides, lard, salt-meat, wool, and corn spirits, which are largely distilled at Copenhagen. The imports consist of wine, salt, timber, tar, pit-coal, fruits, raw sugar, coffee, &c., and a general assortment of manufactured articles. The principal trading towns are Copenhagen, Altona, Elsinore, Flensborg, Aarhuns, Kiel, Rendsborg, Tonningen, and Gluckstadt.

The roads of Zealand and the other islands are generally very good, but in Jutland, Schleswick, Holstein, and Lauenburg, they are in a most neglected state. This must result from absolute indifference on the part of the people, for no country is better adapted for road making. There have, however, already been built several rail roads, and it is probable that the extension of this means of communication will be rapidly undertaken. Perhaps this apathy in respect to roads may be partially owing to the facilities offered by numerous arms of the sea, which penetrate the country far inland. To avoid the difficult navigation round the northern part of Jutland, these have been extended artificially from sea to sea. The Canal of Kiel extends from the town of Kiel, on the Baltic, to the Eider, which has been rendered navigable to the North Sea. This canal is 23 miles long, and in connection with the river, forms a convenient navigation of 105 miles; 3,000 or 4,000 vessels pass through it every year. The Canal of Stecknitz connects the Elbe with the Baltic by means of the Delvenau, an affluent of the Elbe, and the Stecknitz, an affluent of the Trave. The Canal of Nestved, in Zealand, connects the Lake Bavelse with the Baltic Sea. All these canals have been highly advantageous to the commerce, as well as the revenues of the kingdom.

For administrative purposes Denmark is divided into four great provinces, which, with their area, population, &c. are exhibited in the annexed table:

Provinces.

Area in Sq. Miles. Population consisting of North Jutland, and the KINGDOM OF DENMARK,.. Islands of Sjæland (Zealand,) Funen, 14,493.

Laaland, &c., with Färoe...
consisting of South Jutland and the

DUCHY OF SCHLESWICK.. islands of Ero, Als, and Femern, in

1,223,807

3,451........338,192

3,508.......435,596

404..

the Baltic....

35,680

21,856......2,033,275

Each of these is subdivided into bailiwicks, and smaller districts. COPENHAGEN, (Kjobenhavn, i. e. Merchants' Harbor,) the capital of the kingdom, is situated on the east coast of Zealand, where the small Isle of Amack forms a superb harbor. It is one of the finest cities in Europe, being laid out in regular, though narrow streets, and adorned with many noble buildings; such as the royal palaces, churches, hospitals, the townhouse, exchange, mansions of the nobility, &c. It contains also a university one of the most flourishing and best endowed in the world. The Roya Library has a magnificent collection of 400,000 books, and the University

Library, 112,000. It has also a royal bank, and manufactures of linens, woollens, and leather; and also extensive dock-yards. About 500 vessels, manned by six or seven thousand seamen, belong to the port; but the trade of the city is confined to the supplying of its own inhabitants with articles of consumption. Copenhagen is strongly-fortified, and is defended by a citadel considered to be impregnable, and several forts, one of which, the Trekroner, is built in the sea, upon a sand-bank, about a mile from the city. The population exceeds 120,000. The immediate environs of the city are of great beauty.

ROSKILD, the ancient capital, 20 miles west by south of Copenhagen, is a small town, with only 1,200 inhabitants, but contains a Gothic cathedral, a rich library, and the tombs of the royal family. HELSINGOR, (Elsinore,) on the west of the sound, with 7,000 inhabitants, has an artificial harbor, and near it is the strong castle of Kroneborg, intended to command the passage. ALTONA, in Holstein, on the north bank of the Elbe, close to Hamburg, is a large town, possessing great privileges, a mint, and considerable trade. Population, 27,000. KIEL, also in Holstein, is an impor tant town, with 13,000 inhabitants. It has a large trade, especially in grain. The university is a fine foundation, and has a library of over 100,000 volumes. GLUCKSTADT, the capital of Holstein, is a free port. RATZEBURG, the capital of Lauenburg, is a small town, with 2,000 inhabit ants; and LAUENBURG has the right of levying toll on vessels passing up and down the Elbe. SCHLESWICK, the capital of South Jutland, situated at the extremity of a long, narrow inlet, named the Sil, is a busy trading town, with 11,000 inhabitants. Near it is the magnificent castle of Got torp, the residence of the governor of Holstein and Schleswick. RENSBURG, on the Baltic, and TONNINGEN, at the mouth of the Eider, are two important seaports; the former with 14,000 inhabitants, and the latter with 2,500. The other towns are of less importance, and need no special notice. Few have a larger population than 8,000.

The foreign possessions of Denmark are:-Iceland, in the Arctic Ocean; Greenland, in North America; the islands of Santa Cruz, St. Thomas, and St. John, in the West Indies; Christianborg, Tema, Nimbo, Friedensborg, Adda, Koninstein, and Binzenstein, on the coast of Guinea; and Serampore and Tranquebar, in India. These are severally noticed under their appropriate geographical positions.

The early history of Denmark is obscure, but heroic. Their sea-kings were the terror of the south, and their princes the conquerors of even Britain herself, and an illustrious line of Danish kings held her sceptre. The Danes were also remarkable for their early civilization, and their devotion to commerce, perhaps before the first British ship was built. In 1385, Margaret, daughter of Waldemar, king of Denmark, and wife of Haquin, king of Norway, ascended the throne of these kingdoms, and in 1389 she was chosen by the Swedes as their sovereign, the crowns being united in 1397 by the treaty of Calmar. After the death of this renowned princess, in 1412, the Swedes began to evince their discontent with the union, and after a lengthened struggle, finally emancipated themselves from the Danish yoke, in 1523. In 1448, the race of the ancient kings having become extinct, Christian I., of the house of Oldenburg, was raised to the throne, which his posterity still possess, and by this means Schleswick and Holstein have been added to the crown; the first immediately, and the latter in 1761 and 1773. The reformed faith was introduced into Denmark with little difficulty; Lutherism having been introduced in 1523, and Catholicism sup

pressed in 1537. Previous to 1660 the crown of Denmark was elective, but at that period a great revolution occurred, by which the clergy and people, to get rid of the arbitrary tyranny of the nobles, conferred absolute power on the king. From this period there is little interesting in Danish history. At the conclusion of the last war, in which Denmark lost her navy, and suffered great injustice from England, Norway, which had so long been united to Denmark, was assigned to Sweden, the former obtaining in exchange the Duchy of Lauenburg and a sum of money. The Danes felt this sacrifice acutely; but it was one of apparent rather than real strength. In 1834, the king laid aside a large share of his power, and granted to his people a constitutional government, under which they seem to be perfectly happy. Since then the government has steadily exerted itself to draw forth the resources of the country, and to improve the condition of the inhabitants.

There is at the present period considerable difficulty between the German confederation and this kingdom, resulting from conflicting claims to jurisdiction over the provinces of Schleswick and Holstein. Several battles have been fought with various success, but hitherto the temper of both parties has prevented any understanding. The mediation of foreign states, however, has been offered and accepted, and it is to be hoped that peace may be restored.

HELGOLAND,

Or Heligoland, (Holy Island,) a group of two small islands in the German Ocean, 25 miles from the mouth of the Elbe, belonged formerly to Denmark, but was captured in 1807 by the British, who still retain it. The main land consists of a cliff, which rises almost perpendicularly from the sea, to a height varying from 90 to 170 feet, and is surmounted by a lighthouse, situated in 54° 11' 34" N. latitude, and 7° 53′ 13′′ E. longitude; and is joined by a bottom of a rock to a low uninhabited down, where there are two good harbors. Between the main island and the other, which is named Sandy Island, is a road, where ships may anchor in 48 fathoms. The inhabitants, about 2,500 in number, live entirely upon the cliff, and subsist chiefly by fishing and acting as pilots. They are Frieslanders; retain their ancient manners and customs; and obtain turf, wood and other articles of subsistence from Hamburg and Cuxhaven, in exchange for fish. The island was formerly very much larger, but has been, in the course of the last thousand years, reduced by the action of the sea to the existing fragments

THE SCANDINAVIAN PENINSULA. (SWEDEN AND NORWAY.)

THE greater portion of the Scandinavian Peninsula is occupied by Sweden and Norway, two kingdoms entirely distinct and independent of each other, except in their being governed by the same king, and comprised in the same geographical region. It will, therefore, be most convenient to describe first the natural features of the whole, and then divide the political and statistical account of each into separate heads.

Scandinavia forms a large peninsula, between the parallels of 55° and 710 north latitude, and between the meridians of 50 and 32° east longitude, being in extreme length 1,190 miles, and in its greatest breadth 470 miles, with an area of 292,700 square miles. It is bounded north by the Arctic

Ocean; east by Russian Lapland, the Gulf of Bothnia and the Baltic Sea; south by the Baltic, Cattegat and Skager-rack; and west by the Atlantic Ocean. It is connected with the rest of Europe by a broad isthmus of 200 miles, which separates the Gulf of Bothnia from the Arctic Sea.

The physical aspect of the country is peculiar. Throughout the whole length of the peninsula, from the Varangerfiord, in the north-east, to the Skager-rack, in the south-west, a line of lofty and rugged mountains, hills and table-lands, extends 1,100 miles, forming the watershed between the Atlantic Ocean and the basin of the Baltic Sea. North of 63° N. latitude the mountains form one ridge, rising abruptly on the west side, and gradually approaching the ocean as they proceed northward. To the south of 630 the elevated mass forms a table-land, having its eastern and western declivities deeply furrowed with valleys, and from nearly the same point various ridges branch off to the east and south, where they enclose several large lakes. The culmination of these mountains in some parts reaches 8,000 feet; and at no place are they at a greater distance than 100 miles from the western coast. On the eastern side the country descends in long slopes, interrupted by small level plains, and intersected occasionally by ranges of hills. The general elevation of the country varies from 300 to 2,000 feet. The most southerly portion of Sweden, however, is actually low and flat, apparently a portion of the great plain, which includes the neighboring regions of Denmark, Pomerania and Mechlenburg. The coasts of the peninsula are lined with an intricate labyrinth of islands and rocks, which vary in size from a mere point to more than a mile in length, and rise with bare and craggy cliffs from the bottom of the sea. The eastern coast is

irregular in its outline, and is much indented with bays and small gulfs; but on the west coast immense fiords or firths penetrate the country in all directions. The Maelström, long celebrated as the most appalling whirlpool in Europe, is situated near the southern extremity of the Lofoden Islands, and is caused by the current rushing among the islands, which throw back its course, and cause it to make a circular sweep or whirl. Large ships and even whales have been dragged down by its suction.

The climate is generally severe, but a great difference in this respect is observed in the several parts of the peninsula. The north approaches the confines of perpetual winter, while its southern extremity, 16 degrees further from the pole, partakes of a genial and healthy character. The temperature is also modified on the same parallel by elevation, proximity to the sea, shelter, &c., and generally the eastern lowlands are much warmer than their northern position would indicate. The summers are short, but warm and dry, and the sun in the more elevated regions may be seen above the horizon throughout the season. The winter, however, is gloomy and severe, and the lakes and rivers, and even the Gulf of Bothnia are frozen over. At Stockholm, even, where the climate is comparatively moderate, the thermometer sinks to 28° below zero, and a hundred miles further north the mercury freezes in the tube. The atmosphere is generally pure, and the ravages of contagious diseases are never experienced; and while the short but bright summer brings corn to maturity in six or eight weeks, and spreads a flowery carpet over the earth, the pure bracing cold of winter invigorates the active powers of life, and is found, at least by the natives, far less irksome than the moist piercing blasts of more southern regions. The mean annual quantity of rain is 17 inches. In Norway the climate is more temperate than in Sweden, owing to the influence of the sea-winds. The most dis

agreeable part of the Scandinavian year is the spring, when the sudden melting of the snow renders the country almost impassable, and occasions dreadful ravages by inundations, and by the fall of rocks and earth from the mountains.

The mountain nucleus of Scandinavia is composed of primitive and transition rocks. Gneiss and granite, variously distributed, are the predominant formations. Mica-slate, associated with lime-stone quartz, clay-slate, and hornblende are also found, but in less abundance. These primitive stratified rocks are widely distributed over the country. Tracts belonging to the transition formation occur in many places, and particularly on the west side of the Christiana fiord; and this formation likewise includes the islands of the Baltic, and abounds in organic remains. Secondary formations are less extensive. Round Helsingborg there is a small coal basin, and coal is also found in Bornholm. Chalk deposits occur in the south of Sweden. Above all these there are immense deposits of sand and shells in various parts of the country, the latter occuring at 300, 400 and even 600 feet above the sea-level; and though no trace of volcanic action is known to exist, it is said that certain parts of the Swedish coasts are gradually rising, while others are as gradually subsiding.. Earthquakes occur, though rarely.

Next to agriculture the mines of Sweden constitute the chief source of wealth. Green and white marble is abundant, and coal, in small quantity, is found in the south, but iron is scattered in lavish abundance throughout the country. Copper is also found, and some silver. All the mountains of Norway, and especially those of the south, contain a great number of minerals and metals, among which may be mentioned gold, silver, iron, copper and cobalt. There is a mine of plumbago at Engledal; alum mines at Egeberg; and quarries of granite, marble, mill-stone, whet-stone, slate and clay, are wrought in various parts of the country.

Sweden is not more fortunate in its soil than its climate. It cannot boast of any rich alluvial deposits. Coarse sand or gravel, but partially covered with a thin layer of fertile soil, forms in general the champaign country; and besides the woods, which occupy more than three-fourths of its surface, a large portion is covered with lakes, morasses, rivers, and with inconceivable numbers of boulder-stone or isolated rocks of every size. The soil of Norway is similarly characterised, and in both, vegetation is abridged by the length and severity of the winter. In some parts, however, it is very rich, and the valleys in particular are noted for their luxuriant fertility; but even in these much of the soil is thin, and obstructed by rocky knots rising above the surface.

The vegetation of the greater part of Scandinavia resembles that of Great Britain. The peninsula is particularly notable for its forests, which consist of beech, oak, maple, spruce-fir, Scotch-fir, aspen and birch, and not less than nine-tenths of the surface is woodland. The very small proportion of arable land produces articles of the same kind and quality as those of Britain; but the production of each is affected by the elevation of the soil, as well as by the difference of latitude. In the south grapes and mulberries come to perfection, while in the north not even grain is cultivated, and but few potatoes are grown. Above the snow line some lichens alone sustain a feeble existence, and after these vegetation ceases.

The animal kingdom possesses nothing peculiar. The bear prowls in the