emperors have been chosen, and some dethroned-as was Wenceslaus in 1400.

TREVES, or Trier, is a small town upon the Moselle. The city is said to be the oldest in Germany, and was formerly the see of an archbishop, who was one of the electors of the empire. It is finely situated between two mountains covered with vineyards, and contains many fine churches and palaces, a large collection of antiquities, and a fine bridge over the Moselle. Population, 14,600.

AACHEN, or Aix-la-Chapelle, an ancient imperial city, is situated in a valley nearly surrounded by hills, and has long been noted and much resorted to for its mineral waters. It consists of several respectable, with many dirty and confined streets; and contains several churches, which, from their antiquity and various ornaments, deserve to be visited; but the two most interesting buildings are the town house and cathedral, the latter of which, or at least a part of it, was built by Charlemagne, and contains his tomb; but his earthy particles have disappeared. He was not buried, but placed in a white marble chair, with his imperial robes and crown, in the year 814. After a lapse of two centuries the vault which contained these precious relics was opened by the Emperor Otho III., who carried off the ensigns of royalty to be used at the coronation of future emperors. It was opened in 1165, a second time, by Barbarossa, who transferred the body to a splendid sarcophagus, and placed the chair in the church, where it is still preserved. The sarcophagus is now empty, but how or when it became so, is not known; though a skull and an arm bone, said to be those of Charlemagne, are still to be found in the reliquiary of the church. From the time of the Emperor Louis I. to the year 1588, thirty-six kings of Germany and ten queens were crowned at Aachen; and 17 diets and 10 synods have been held thereat. The waters of Aachen are sulphureous, warm and nauseous. This is the only Prussian town in which gambling is licensed, and one of its "hells," named the "New Redoubt," ranks as the most splendid and profligate of all the establishments of the kind on the continent. The city has of late years been much embellished, and besides several splendid hotels and gambling-houses, contains a superb bath-house, a new theatre and several fine fountains. It is also the seat of flourishing manufactures of various kinds. Its needles are much celebrated. Its other articles of produce are cloth, linen, cotton goods, clocks and watches, goldsmith work and carriages.

THE KINGDOM OF DENMARK.

THE dominions of Denmark consist of Denmark proper, or Jutland, with several adjacent islands; and Schleswick and Holstein in Germany. It lies between 53° 20′ and 57° 44' N. latitude, and 80 and 15° 28′ E. longitude. Length, 298 miles; breadth, 180 miles; area, 21,856 square miles. It is bounded by the Skager-rack and Cattegat on the north; the Elbe and the territories of Hamburg, Lubeck, Hanover and Mecklenburg on the south;

Originally the Emperor was not Emperor of Germany, though usually styled so. He was King of Germany and Emperor of the Holy Roman Empire; in which character it was that Charlemagne and others were crowned at Rome by the Pope. The title ran thus: "Electus Romanorum Imperator semper augustus, ac Germaniæ Rex," &c.

the Baltic and the Sound on the east, and by the German Ocean on the

west.

Denmark is a portion of the great European plain, and may be characterised as almost uniformly level, with partial inequalities, particularly in Holstein and Schleswick, where the elevation sometimes reaches 1,000 feet. The islands of Funen and Zealand have also considerable inequalities. The continental portion consists of a narrow peninsula, projected from Germany and terminating in the Skaw. The islands are situated between this and the neighboring kingdom of Sweden, and are separated from each other by narrow straits which form the communication between the German Ocean and the Baltic Sea. The soil is generally a composition of sand and clay; but in some parts there are extensive peat formations. The western coast is one continued level marshland, protected from the sea by dykes. Lauenburg is an undulating plain with few hills. The vegetation of the islands is surprisingly developed, and refreshes the eye with its bright verdure. The most beautiful beech woods, with fertile fields and meadows, vary the scene, while numerous small lakes and prospects of the sea, which burst on the sight, communicate life and variety to the whole. Holstein has a highly pleasing character, and consists of gentle knolls interspersed with small sheets of water. In general, however, there is little wood; but whenever it occurs, from its consisting principally of trees with glossy and luxuriant foliage, it tells well in the landscape.

The straits which divide the islands are of difficult navigation, and the shallows, rapids and short and precipitous waves concur to render the whole coast very dangerous. The Skager-rack and Cattegat separate Jutland from Norway and Sweden; the Little Belt, at one place very narrow, separates Funen from the continent; the Great Belt separates Funen and Langeland from Zealand and Laaland, and the Sound separates Zealand from Sweden. The Sound is almost the only one of these straits that is frequented by foreign ships, and every ship that passes pays toll to the king of Denmark. It is about 4,600 yards wide, and is in some parts interrupted by sand-banks. The number of ships passing through it varies from 13,000 to 16,000 annually. The Liimfiord extends from the Cattegat nearly across the whole breadth of north Jutland, at first in a narrow stream, but afterwards expanding into a broad basin, divided by peninsulas and islands. It is separated from the German Ocean only by a narrow belt of land, which was broken through by the waves in 1825; and the canal of Agger has since been formed at the breach, for the passage of vessels through the fiord. The most remarkable cape is the Skaw or Skagens-odde, the extreme northern point of the peninsula.

The islands belonging to Denmark, with the exception of Zealand, Funen, Laaland, &c., in the Baltic, are small. A large number, consisting chiefly of sand, line the western coast, one of which, Heligoland, belongs to Great Britain. The Faroe Islands, in the Atlantic, north of the Shetlands, belong to Denmark, and form one of the provinces of the kingdom. They are 22 in number, of which 17 are inhabited. Most of them may be considered as mountain ridges rising above the surface. They have a fertile soil and a mild but moist climate, and are subject to fogs and storms, though little so to rain. Extremes of heat or cold are rarely felt. None of the grains are cultivated with much success, except perhaps big, a hardy species of barley, and even that does not always ripen. Turnips and potatoes thrive well. Winter is not severe, but of long duration, clouding more than one-half of

the year in darkness, illumed only by the fitful gleams of the Aurora Borealis, which is here truly brilliant. In the peat bogs are found the remains of beech trees, though none now exist in the islands.

The rivers of Denmark are all small, but have been much improved by the people. The Eider rises from a pond near Bordesholm in Holstein, runs through Lake Western, separates Schleswick from Holstein, and enters the North Sea, below Tonningen. The Delvenau, Alster, Bille and Stor, in Holstein, run into the Elbe. The Trave rises in Holstein, receives the Stecknitz from Lauenburg, and flows past Lubeck into the Baltic. The Guden in North Jutland runs into the Cattegat. The kingdom contains more than 400 lakes, but they are mostly very small.

The climate is essentially insular, and consequently much milder than its latitude would indicate. The atmosphere is very damp, and fogs frequently envelope the surface, and to this cause Denmark mainly owes its luxuriant vegetation. Summer, however, is short, and cold weather returns with October, and incessant snows or rains prevail until May or June. The coasts are seldom covered with ice, or the Sound rendered unnavigable in the most severe seasons. The climate, generally speaking, is not insalubrious.

As before remarked, few forests exist in Denmark, which is said to be owing to the violence of the storms which prevent their growth. Of the dark forests which once covered the land, there now remains only long belts along its eastern shores. In Holstein and Lauenburg, however, wood lands are more extensive. Funen and the other islands are dotted with small forests, chiefly consisting of birch, oak and ash, but pines are rare. Berrybearing shrubs and brambles border the highways and skirt the woods. A plant which the Danes call manna, (festuca fluitans,) and the grain of which yields very tolerable food, grows spontaneously in several of the islands, especially in Laaland. There are also other indigenous plants, which are found useful in medicine and the arts.

Few of the larger wild animals, since the extinction of the forests, have existed in Denmark. The wolf has disappeared, and the wild boar and deer have become very scarce; but the fox, martin, polecat, and other small quadrupeds, are still abundant. On the coasts wild geese and ducks, partridges, snipes and thrushes frequent the marshes; and, in the Liimfiord and among the islands of the Sound, the swan flies at large. The eider-duck nestles in the clifts of the rocks, but the eagle and other large birds of prey are seldom seen. Domestic animals form the chief wealth of Denmark. The horse, the ox and the sheep have been much improved in breed, and are much sought after for exportation. Poultry is very profitable to the farmers. Swine are sent in considerable numbers into Holstein, and there fattened and salted for exportation. Denmark has long supplied the continent with that race of dogs called "Danish," famed for their strength and fidelity, and also with the small black muzzled dog which the French call" Carlin." The seas abound in fish, and few families on the sea-board neglect to supply themselves with an ample store for food, and a large surplus is exported. Plaise, oysters, lobsters, herrings, salmon, &c., are very abundant in different localities.

The people of Denmark are of German origin, but of four distinct families. The "Danes" form the great mass of the people in Jutland, the islands and in Schleswick. The "Germans" inhabit Holstein and Lauenburg, and form perhaps one fourth in Schleswick. The "Frisons" occupy the islands

along the west coast, and the "Angles" live between the Bight of Flensburg and the Schley on the Baltic. The Danes are of middle stature and fair complexion, but are little acquainted with the improvements of the more polished part of Europe, and the peasantry have but recently been emancipated from feudal servitude. On the other hand, the Danes have long enjoyed the advantages of the reformation, and the establishment of schools.

The language of Denmark is a branch of the Teutonic, and is styled the Scandinavian Gothic. The structure and roots, however, are very different from the High Dutch, but the affinity is so marked as to leave no doubt of their common origin. It is one of the softest languages now spoken in Europe, the consonants being so liquified in pronunciation as not to be easily perceptible.

The population of Denmark (including the Faroe Islands,) amounts to upwards of 2,000,000, and is distributed in the following proportions: in Denmark proper, 1,223,807; in the German provinces, 813,788; and in Faröe, 7,000.

Lutherism is the established religion of the state, and is professed by almost the whole of the people. There are also a few Catholics, Hernhutters, Calvinists and Mennonites; and the Jews, though comparatively few, are nevertheless more numerous than any of the last mentioned sects separately. All religions, however, enjoy political and civil equality. There are nine Lutheran bishops all nominated by the king, but they have no political character. The clergy amount to 1,580, of which 1,063 are in Jutland and the islands, and 517 in Schleswick and Holstein. They are paid partly by a share of the tithes and partly by fees and glebe lands.

Education in Denmark has reached a high degree of perfection. All the institutions (except the university of Kiel) are under the management of a royal college or commission, which appoints the professors and teachers. The university of Copenhagen has four faculties-a theological, a judicial, a medical and a philosophical; and to the last mentioned belong Greek and Roman literature, and other departments of a general education. The number of grammar and parish schools amounts to upwards of 3,000, and there are besides 2,000 schools in which the systems of Bell and Lancaster have been adopted. The latter are intended for elementary education and the instruction of the common people. Teaching, however, is free, and any person may establish himself in competition with the government schools. In "Bremner's Incursions," that author seems to be much prejudiced against the results of Danish education, and states that the people are in the greatest of ignorance, and that the system pursued fails to call genius from obscurity or foster it when discovered. There may be truth in his remarks, but perhaps a more favorable opinion has been formed by others; to say the least, the present writer has never known a Dane who could not read and write, and who, moreover, exhibited a general proficiency in the common branches of a liberal education. The university of Kiel, in Holstein, is less richly endowed and less flourishing than that of Copenhagen.

The government was formerly an absolute monarchy. In 1834, Frederick VI. voluntarily relinquished a large share of the royal power, by granting to his people a free constitution. Each of the five districts into which the kingdom is divided has a distinct parliament, without whose consent no law affecting person or property can be promulgated, and new taxes and levies must be sanctioned by them. They can likewise suggest laws for the king's approval. The four provincial states are:-1. That of the islands, which VOL. II

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has 70 representatives; 2. Jutland, 51; 3. Schleswick, 44; and 4. Holstein, 48. Lauenburg is still governed by its old constitution. The public business is managed by a Privy Council, and subordinate to this council are the Chanceries of Denmark, Schleswick and Holstein, the office of Foreign Affairs, the Treasury, the Chamber of Commerce, the Admiralty, the War Office, and the Board of Trade. None but natural born subjects are eligible to official stations. With respect to the laws there is no uniform code for the whole kingdom; Schleswick and Holstein retain their old usages and constitutions, and Denmark is governed by the code of Christian V., who reigned from 1670 to 1679. There are two orders of nobility, viz.: counts, or earls and barons, but there is also, as in other feudal countries, an untitled nobility, who rank as high in the estimation of the people as those ennobled by the king. In Holstein and Lauenburg, which form a portion of the Germanic Confederation, the nobility enjoys great privileges. The Ditmarshians, in Holstein, and the citizens of Altona, have likewise great liberties and privileges, and in particular are exempt from the system of excise and customs, to which all the rest of the kingdom is subjected. The annual revenue of the kingdom averages about $7,000,000. The public debt amounts to £13,969,035 sterling, and the annual interest on this sum to £525,744, or about one-third of the revenue. All surplusses are paid into the sinking fund for the redemption of the state debt.

The permanent army consists of 12,000 foot, and 3,700 horse troops; but at the annual drill, when all the men absent on furlough attend, it amounts to 24,867 foot, and 18,067 horse, besides those employed in the hospitals, &c. The whole, including these, amounts to 72,000. Denmark is divided into three military districts. The naval force, since its capture by the British, has ceased to be efficient. It now consists of 7 ships of the line, 7 frigates, 5 sloops, 6 brigs, 3 schooners, 3 cutters, 58 gun-boats, 6 gunrafts, and 3 bomb vessels, in all carrying 1,076 guns, and requiring about 3,000 men to man them. This navy may be sufficient to protect the commerce of the country, and enforce its laws on the sea. The merchant navy is in a very flourishing condition.

Productive industry in Denmark is two centuries behind that of those nations to whom, in numbers and natural advantages of soil, climate and situation, the Danes may be fairly compared, viz: the Scots, the Dutch, and the Belgians. Occupying the richest soil and the most advantageous position in the north of Europe, the people are very poor. Agriculture is especially backward, and the implements of husbandry quite primitive. The small farm system here prevails, a system decidedly prejudicial to extensive improvement. Oats, barley, and rye, are the principal crops. Wheat is little cultivated, but of late the potatoe has been very extensively planted. The great object of the farmer is grazing, and both horses and beeves are largely exported. In Holstein the farmers are more scientific, and excel their brethren of the north in the art of producing. Their fields are better cultivated, but here as elsewhere, the agriculturist considers his cattle as his chief wealth. In Lauenburg and the islands, the agricultural produce is mainly confined to the inferior kinds of grain. But throughout all Denmark the long and severe winters are a continued and irremediable hindrance to agricultural advancement.

The Danes are not a manufacturing people. Earthenware is made in several places, and in Holstein there are considerable works in copper and brass, but there are only four iron foundries in the kingdom Domestic