THE UNITED KINGDOM OF

GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.

THE group of islands constituting this kingdom, and of which the islands of Great Britain and Ireland are the largest, and by far the most important, is situated between 49° 57′ and 69° 49′ north latitude, and between 1° 46′ east, and 10° 27' west longitude. GREAT BRITAIN, the most extensive of the group, is politically divided into two countries-England and Scotland -which originally formed separate kingdoms, and which are still governed by different laws. IRELAND, the smaller of the large islands, is likewise to the same extent a distinct kingdom; for, though it has been subject to the crown of England since the 11th century, it nevertheless had an independent legislature until its union with Great Britain in 1801, and still enjoys the form of an independent government, administered by a viceroy, or Lord Lieutenant. These three kingdoms, though now consolidated into one, will require in their description separate sections, and will be described in the following order, viz: 1. ENGLAND and WALES; 2. SCOTLAND; and 3. IRELAND.

I-ENGLAND AND WALES.

ENGLAND, inclusive of the principality of Wales, occupying the southern portion of the island of Great Britain, and forming geographically the principal division of the United Kingdom, is situated between latitudes 50° and 55° 45′ north, and between longitudes 60 west, and 1° 50′ east. On the north, the only direction in which it is not surrounded by the sea, it is divided from Scotland by a series of rivers, and a chain of mountains. The greatest length from Lizard's Point in Cornwall, to Berwick-upon-Tweed, is about 400 miles, and the greatest breadth from St. David's Head, Pembrokeshire, to the east coast of Essex, is 300 miles. The area has been variously computed at 50,387 and 57,960 square miles, of which only onefourth part is uncultivated.

England is generally a level or undulating country. In the north, some mountains traverse the surface in several directions; in the south, however, there are no considerable elevations, and the hills only serve to diversify the country, and give it that picturesque outline for which it is noted. The greatest part of the Scottish border is formed by the Cheviot hills, a chain of considerable elevation, and from which a range, varying from 1,200 to 3,000 feet, diverges southward, through Cumberland, Yorkshire and Lancashire, to the middle of Derbyshire. This chain forms the watershed of the north country. Connected with this, but almost separated from it by the vallies of the Eden and the Lune, is a lofty group of mountains, which cover a great portion of Westmoreland and Cumberland, where Scawfell, Helvellyn, Skiddaw and Bowfell rise respectively to 3,166, 3,055, 3,022, and 2,911 feet above the level of the ocean. The second great watershed of the country is formed by a range of table-lands, rising sometimes into hills, and extending in a tortuous line through the East Riding of Yorkshire, and the counties of Lincoln, Northampton, Oxford, Gloucester, Somerset and Dorset ; where it terminates at the islands of Portland and Purbeck. It is chiefly composed of oolitic rocks, rising above a lias formation, and presents gen

erally a bold escarpment to the west, with a regular slope to the east. This range forms the Cotswold, Mendip, Quantock and Brendon hills, in the last of which Dunkerry beacon, one of the highest summits in the west of England, rises to the height of 1660 feet. The Chalk hills which traverse the south and east, diverge from Salisbury plain. One of these extends through Hampshire and Sussex to Beachy Head, forming the "South Downs;" a second extends in nearly the same direction through Hampshire, Surrey and Kent, and forms the "North Downs;" while the third and most important range pursues a north-easterly direction, and forms the eastern border of the "Fens." The south-western counties are occupied with mountains of granitic formation, sometimes called the Devonian range, the principal chain of which extends from the vale of Exeter to the Land's End. Wales is occupied by a system of high and rugged mountains, which constitute several groups and chains, and intersect the country in various directions, between the Bristol Channel and the Irish Sea. The highest and most broken part of England is found near its western coast, while the principal plains and lowlands slope towards the German Ocean.

Besides the moorlands which cover a large portion of the mountain districts, there are other tracts of that description, which deserve notice. The eastern moorlands in the North Riding of Yorkshire, 30 miles in length, and 20 in breadth, consist chiefly of stony hills and peat mosses, with a cold and ungenial climate. There are, however, even in this tract, some fertile and well-cultivated dales. The moorlands of Staffordshire occupy the northern portion of the county, at an elevation of 500 to 1154 feet, and are of various quality and aspect. Dartmoor, in Devonshire, covers a space of from 200,000 to 300,000 acres, at a mean elevation of 1,700 feet. Its surface is extremely rugged, and the soil, covered with fragmentary rock, is thin and poor. In the highest part of the moor there is a morass of about 80,000 acres. In the western part of Somersetshire is Exmoor, a tract of about 20,000 acres, which is mostly waste and irreclaimable, but produces a small hardy breed of horses, and affords pasture to about 20,000 sheep of a peculiar breed, to which it gives its name. Besides these hilly moorlands, there are extensive heaths in England, principally in Surrey, Herts and Dorset, which consist of exceedingly poor land, and are generally flat and uninteresting.

These ranges of mountains, hills and moorlands, divide the country into a great variety of plains and vallies, which are traversed by rivers and streamlets, few of which are naturally navigable. A few of the more interesting of these districts may be enumerated. The Vale of York may justly be regarded as the principal river vale of the island. It extends about 60 miles in length and 15 in breadth, and contains an area of 1,000 square miles. Holderness, lying between the Humber and the sea, is a plain with a low but undulating surface, of about 270,000 acres. The city of Carlisle is placed in the centre of a large plain of 300,000 acres. The Vale of the Severn, one of the most fertile districts in England, extends through Gloucestershire and Worcestershire, for 40 miles. The Vale of Exeter contains 200 square miles; and the Vale of Taunton, about one half the extent, produces the finest crops and fruits, and enjoys a particularly mild climate. Between the North and South Downs is the Weald of Kent, Surrey and Sussex, a level tract of 1,000 square miles. The Fens form a level tract of about 400,000 acres of very low, marshy lands, lying around the Wash, principally in Cambridge and Lincoln, but partly also in Northampton, Norfolk, Suffolk and Huntingdon. Romney Marsh, in Kent, is connected

with the Welland, Denge and Guilford marshes, in Surrey, which together form a tract of 50,000 acres, the greater part of which is rich and productive. The marshes of Somersetshire are likewise of considerable extent and importance. These lie along the Bristol Channel, and are traversed by the rivers Axe, Brue and Parret, and in point of fertility are not surpassed by any in the kingdom. Salisbury Plain and Marlborough Downs are also important tracts. But the largest plain in England is that which extends from the Thames north-eastward, through Essex, Suffolk and Norfolk, comprehending nearly the whole of these counties, with a considerable portion of those bordering upon them to the west.

The sea-coasts of England present every variety of form, and are much modified by the character of the adjacent country. In some places, as in Cornwall, Kent, part of Norfolk and Wales, they are high and steep; while in other places they are low, sandy and marshy; but exhibit, on the whole, appearances so various as scarcely to admit of generalization. Though partaking more of a level than the rugged character, they still differ essentially from their opposite coasts of Flanders, Holland, &c., which present cne continued flat for more than 300 miles. The only part of England, indeed, that bears any resemblance to these are the coasts of Lincolnshire and the coasts of the Wash, in the adjoining counties of Cambridge and Norfolk.

The whole coast is indented with arms of the sea, forming bays and estuaries of considerable importance. On the eastern coast are the estuaries of the Tyne and Tees, in Northumberland and Durham; Runswick Bay, Robin Hood's Bay, Filey Bay and Bridlington Bay, on the coast of Yorkshire; the Humber, a large estuary between York and Lincoln; the Wash, between Lincoln and Norfolk; Solebay, off Southwold, in Suffolk ; the estuaries of the Stour and of the Thames; Yarmouth Roads, and the Downs, at the eastern extremity of Kent; on the south coast are the Solent, Southampton-Water and Spithead, forming, together, a large navigable strait between Hampshire and the Isle of Wight. The Solent is in most places about two miles wide, but a little to the north of the rocks called the "Needles," the western point of the Isle of Wight, it is contracted to less than a mile by a remarkable tongue of land, which projects from Hampshire; Hurst Castle occupies the extremity of this projection, and owing to the narrowness of the passage, the tide runs through it with such force that it has deepened the channel to 28 fathoms. Southampton-Water is a deep inlet, stretching upwards of 10 miles into Hampshire, and navigable for vessels of considerable burthen. Spithead derives its name from a sand bank called the "Spit," which extends about three miles in a southeasterly direction from Gosport. The other bays, &c., on this coast are at St. Helen's Road, off the east of the Isle of Wight; Studland Bay, on the Dorsetshire coast; Torbay and Start Bay, in Devonshire; Portland Roads, a good anchorage on the east side of Portland Island; Plymouth Sound, between Devon and Cornwall; the estuary of the Tamer and Plym; Polkerris Bay, between Plymouth and Falmouth; Falmouth Harbor and Mount Bay, off the coast of Cornwall. On the western coast we find St. Ives' Bay, in Cornwall; Barnstable Bay, in Devon; the Bristol Channel, a deep gulf between Wales, on the north, and Devon and Somerset, on the south, about 25 miles wide at its mouth, and contracted to eight where it is joined by the estuary of the Severn; Bridgewater Bay, Swansea Bay and Caermarthen Bay, dependencies of the Bristol Channel; Milford Haven

and St. Bride's Bay, in Pembroke; Cardigan and Caernarvon Bays; Merai Strait, between Caernarvon and the Isle of Anglesea, which is crossed by a magnificent suspension bridge, the largest in the kingdom; Holyhead Bay; Lancaster and Morecambe bays, in the north-western part of Lancashire; the Soleway Firth, &c., &c. Many of these bays and inlets are important to the commerce of the country, while others are shallow, and obstructed by bars, banks and shoals, which are visible at low water.

The capes best known, and of most importance to the mariner, are :— *Flamborough-Head and *Spurn-Head, Yorkshire; Gibraltar Point, in Lincolnshire; Hunstanton Cliff, at the eastern entrance of the Wash; *Cromer Headland and Winterton-Ness, on the coast of Norfolk; Oxford-Ness, in Suffolk; the Naze, in Essex; North Foreland, South Foreland, and Dungeness, in Kent; *Beachy-Head and Selsea Bill, in Sussex; *HurstPoint, in Hampshire; Dunnose-Head and the *Needles, Isle of Wight; St. Alban's-Head, and *Portland-Bill, in Dorset; Hope's Nose, Berry-Head, Start-Point, Prawle-Point, Balt-Head and Stoke-Point, in Devon; RameHead, Deadman's-Point, Lizard's-Point, Land's-End, Cape Cornwall, Trevose-Head, and Pentire, in Cornwall; Hartland-Point, Baggy-Point, and Mort Point, in Devon; Penarth-Head, Mumbles-Head, and Worms-Head, in Glamorganshire; St. Goven's-Head, St. Ann's-Head, St. David's-Head, and Strumble-Head, in Pembrokeshire; Brach-y-Pwll, the south-western point of Caernarvon; *Linis-Point or Llane-Lian, the north-eastern extremity of Anglesea; Great Orme's-Head, in Denbigh; *Point of Aire, in Flintshire; St. Bee's-Head, in Cumberland; and Point of Aire, Isle of Man.

The coasts on every side present a multitude of islands, which, more or less, are important to the navigator, and some are large and populous, while others are mere rocks, and of use only as beacons to direct the seaman through the treacherous seas which surround the shores of England. The more noted are: off the east coast-Holy Island, or Lindisfarne, in North Durham, celebrated for the remains of its ancient abbey, and a castle built upon a lofty rock; *Fern Islands and Staple Islands, two groups of rocks lying off Bamborough Castle in Northumberland; Coquet Island, also in Northumberland; the islands of Mersea, Osey, Northey, Foulness, Wallasea, Potten and Canvey, lying off the coast of Essex; Sheppey Isle, off the north coast of Kent; and the Isle of Thanet, the north-eastern portion of Kent, formed by the two branches of the river Stour, which were anciently a strait or arm of the sea. Off the south coast are-West Therney Island, in Sussex; Heyling Island in Hampshire; the Isle of Wight, a large and beautiful island, called the garden of England, in Hampshire; Purbeck and Portland Islands, two peninsulas off the coast of Dorset, noted for their quarries. Portland is a vast mass of freestone, joined to the mainland by a shingly beach nine or ten miles long, called the Chesil Bank; Eddystone Rock, on which the celebrated lighthouse is erected; *Longships Rocks, 3 miles west of Land's End; and the Scilly Islands, a group 17 in numberthe largest of which are St. Mary's, Fresco, St. Martin's, Ganilly, Bryer, and St. Agnes. The Norman or Channel islands, which have been an appendage of the English Crown since the eleventh century, lie off the south coast of the English Channel. The principal of these are Jersey, 12 miles by 5 or 6; Guernsey, 9 miles by 6; Alderney, Sark, Herm, Caskets, and many other islands and rocks of small extent. Between Alderney and Cape La

*The site of a lighthouse.

Hague, in France, the tide rushes through with great impetuosity, from which circumstance the passage has got the name of the "Race of Alder ney." On the west coast we find *Lundy Island, at the entrance of the Bristol Channel; Barry Island, off Glamorganshire; *Flatholm and Steepholm, near the mid-channel, opposite Bridgewater Bay; Caldy, Stockham, Skomer, Grasholm, Smalls, Ramsey, Bishop and his clerks, all on the coast of Pembroke; Cardigan Island, at the mouth of the Teify; St. Ludwal Islands, Bradsea Island; Anglesea, itself a county; Holyhead, and *South Stack, west of Anglesea; *Skerries Island; Helbre Island, at the entrance of the Dee; *Black Rock, at the entrance of the Mersey; *Walney Island, situated on the northern entrance to Morecambe and Lancaster bays the large and populous Isle of Man; and the *Calf of Man. This catalogue, however, contains numerically a few only of the hundreds which beset the coasts-those of lesser importance we must omit.

Besides the islands, there are other noted places which may with propriety be adverted to as the Sandbank, off Spurn Head, on which is a floating light; Dudgeon Shoal, 26 miles north of Wells, in Norfolk; the Anchorage of Lynn Well floating light at the mouth of the Wash; *Newarp Sandbank, on the Norfolk coast; the Anchorage of Stanford Channel, off Suffolk; Galloper Sandbank, 20 miles south of Oxford-ness; *Sunk Sandbank, at the mouth of the Thames; the Anchorage of the Nore, between the Thames and Medway navigations, about three miles north-east of Sheerness; Goodwin Sands, near the north sandhead of which the Goodwin floating light is moored, and about seven miles south-south-east of the North Foreland; and the Anchorage of the Gull Stream floating light, inside the Goodwin Sands, and opposite to Sandwich. All these are on the east coast. On the south coast are *Owers Shoal, off Sussex, &c.; while on the west coast are found a number of equally important localities, with the position of which it is essential for the mariner to be acquainted.

None of the rivers of England are very large, but their value to the commerce of the country is in the highest degree important. The Thames, which is formed by the Lech, Colne, Thame and Isis, is perhaps the best navigable stream in the kingdom, and certainly it is the most frequented. It takes its rise in Cotswold Hills in Gloucestershire. Below the junction of the streams above named, it takes the name of Isis, and after its junction with the Thame, near Dorchester, it becomes the Thame-isis or Thames. From this point it flows eastward to the German Ocean, receiving in its course a number of fine streams, which drain the adjoining counties. The Medway, one of its tributaries, is a large river with a wide estuary, and is navigable for the largest ships up to Chatham. The Severn rises in the east side of Plinlimmon, in Montgomeryshire, and flows in a circuitous direction through Salop, Worcester and Gloucester, and enters the Bristol Channel. It is a larger river than the Thames. In the first part of its course it preserves the characteristics of a mountain stream, being clear, and at times bordered by picturesque scenery, but on leaving Wales and entering the more level country, it becomes a full, slow-flowing river, and admits of easy navigation. Its principal affluents are the Teme and the Upper and Lower Avon. The tide at the mouth of the Lower Avon rises 48 feet. The Wye, celebrated for its romantic and beautiful scenery, has its rise in the south side of Plinlimmon, near the sources of the Severn, flows in a winding course through Radnor and Hereford, and after separa

The site of a lighthouse.