1. A Proper Diphthong is a diphthong in which both of the vowels are sounded, as oi in voice.

2. An Improper Diphthong, or Digraph, is a diphthong in which only one of the vowels is sounded, as ea in beat.

A TRIPHTHONG, or Trigraph, is three vowel letters joined in one syllable, as eau in beau, uoy in buoy.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER I.

1. What is the meaning and derivation of the term orthography? 2. What are orthographical forms?

3. Which, in the order of nature and time, comes first, orthoepy or orthography?

4. What is the end aimed at by orthography in the early stages of a language?

5. In the later stages of a language, what is the influence of orthography? 6. What are the chief conditions of a perfect system of literal notation? 7. What is the end aimed at by a literal notation?

8. What is said of the alphabetic system of the Sanscrit language?

9. What is the number of letters in the English alphabet?

10. What is the number of sounds in the table of elementary and compound sounds?

11. Does the English alphabet meet the conditions of a perfect system of literal notation mentioned in section 179?

12. What are letters, and what is the derivation of the term?

13. Into what classes are letters divided?

14. Are the names of letters, and the elementary sounds which they represent, the same?

15. Illustrate the difference between the names of the letters and the sounds.

16. Name and classify the vowel letters.

17. Name and classify the consonant letters.

18. What is a diphthong? a proper diphthong? an improper diphthong? a triphthong?

19. Which letters are the sibilants? which the nasals? which the linguals? which the cerebrals?

CHAPTER II.

THE RELATIONS OF THE LETTERS TO THE ELE-
MENTARY SOUNDS.

VOWEL LETTER S.

A.

§ 183. A, normally or regularly, represents four tabular elementary sounds, namely, the first, second, third, and fourth.

of Elementary Sounds, § 118.

See Table

1. The ancient or Italian sound, as in father, which is slightly modified in certain combinations, as in pass, dance.

2. The Short sound, as in mat. This is sometimes described as the short sound of the Italian a.

3. The Long or slender sound, as in fate, which is modified when in combination with the liquid r, as in care. This use of a is peculiar to the English.

4. The Broad sound, as in fall, which is shortened in what.

In the words any, many, and says, a, abnormally or irregularly, represents the short sound usually represented by e. The short sound of a in late is represented by e, as in let. In unaccented syllables, the sounds represented by a are often not distinguishable from the sounds represented by some other vowel letters. A final, unaccented, has the sound of a in father, as in the word America. The deficiency of the English alphabet is seen in the fact that one letter represents at least four different sounds. There should be as many letters as sounds. See § 179.

As in other languages, so in the English, the sound of a interchanges with o. In Old English, the forms hond and strond occur instead of hand and strand. In Anglo-Saxon, brad, stan, correspond to the English forms broad, stone. The a in salt was pronounced like a in fat before it was pronounced, as at present, like o in not. The change from the sound of a to that of o takes place more especially before the letter l, as wall, call. When the liquid is followed by another consonant, the is generally sunk in the pronunciation, as falcon, salmon, pronounced faucon, sammon.

The inconvenience of having so many sounds represented by a single letter is partly removed by the use of marks, as in Webster's and Worcester's Dictionaries. Each mark serves the purpose of an

original letter. It can not, however, be expected that these marks will generally be adopted in printing. It is not advisable to increase the variety of sounds represented by a single letter, as some are inclined to do.

Æ, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in Cæsar, and sometimes to short e, as in cætera.

Ai, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long a, as in sail, and sometimes to short e, as in said, and to i in aisle. These vowels are sometimes separated, as in mosaic.

Ao, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long a in gaol, and to short o in extraordinary. In aorta these vowels do not coalesce. All, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to broad a, as in cause, and sometimes to the Italian a, as in aunt, and to long a in gauge. Aw, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to broad a, as in maw. Ay, a Proper Diphthong in the word ay, is elsewhere an Improper Diphthong, and is equivalent to long a, as in day.

E.

184. E represents normally two elementary sounds, the fifth and the sixth. The Long sound, as in mete. 2. The Short

sound, as in met.

It sometimes is equivalent to long a, as in there; and to short e, as in her; and to short i, as in England.

Before 7, in the final unaccented syllable, it is sometimes mute, as in shekel, pronounced shek'l, and sometimes sounded, as in chapel. Before n, in the final unaccented syllable, it is sometimes mute, as in heaven, pronounced heav'n, and sometimes sounded, as in kitchen. In unaccented syllables, e has sometimes the sound of u, as in suffer, and sometimes the sound of e is suppressed, as in words like cherries, married, pronounced cherris, marrid.

The long sound of e is strictly the long sound of i in pit, and the short sound of e is strictly the short sound of a in late.

The e mute, in words like cone, robe, serves to denote the length of the preceding vowel. For this purpose it is retained, but it was not for this purpose that it was invented. Originally it expressed a sound; and it is only by a change of language that it has come, as it were by accident, to be an orthographical expedient. E is always mute at the end of words, except monosyllables which have no other vowels, as the, me; and proper names, as Phebe. It does not always lengthen the foregoing vowel, as in live, give.

E mute, at the end of words, serves to give c the sound of s, which would otherwise have the sound of k, as in dance; and also to give g the sound of j, as in singe, which would otherwise be sing

and also to preserve to s its own sound, which would otherwise have that of z, as in dispense; and also to give to th a sonant sound instead of a surd, as in breathe. It is mute when l is coupled with a consonant at the end of words, as in fickle.

The use of the letter e with its long sound is peculiar to the English. In other languages it has the sound of a in fate, or that of ê fermê.

Ea, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in tea; to short e, as in head; to long a, as in break; to the Italian a, as in heart. Ee, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in eel. Ei, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long a, as in veil; to long e, as in deceit; to long i, as in height; and to short e, as in heifer. Eo, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long e, as in people; to short e, as in leopard; to long o in yeoman; and to short o in George, Eu and ew have the diphthongal sound of u, as in feud, dew. In sew, shew, and strew, ew sounds like long o.

Ey is equivalent to long a, as in prey; to long e in key; and to long i in ley. Eye is equivalent to i.

Eau has the sound of long o, as in beau; in beauty, and its compounds, it has the sound of long u.

I.

185. I represents normally two sounds.. The Diphthongal, sometimes called the Long sound, as in fine. See § 118. 2. The seventh elementary sound, called the Short sound, as in pit. The latter is strictly the short sound of long e.

Before r it is equivalent to short u, as in first. It sometimes is equivalent to long e, as in machine.

I, unaccented, readily blends with the succeeding vowel, as ia in physician; io in concession.

In other languages, long i is pronounced like ee.

Ie, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long i, as in die; to long e, as in grief; and to short e, as in friend. In terminations, like twentieth, in fiery, in Orient, the vowels should be separated in pronunciation; also in variegate.

leu and iew, Triphthongs, have the sound of long u, as in licu, review.

0.

186. O represents normally two elementary sounds, namely, the eighth and the ninth. 1. The Long, as in note. 2. The Short, as in not.

It sometimes is equivalent to oo, as in prove; and to u short, as in

love; and to broad a, as in lord; and to short in women; and to the u in full, as in wolf.

Oa, an Improper Diphthong, is sometimes equivalent to long o, as in coal, or to broad a, as in broad.

Oe, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent sometimes to long o, as in foe, or to oo, as in canoe, or to long e, as in fœtus.

Oi is a Proper Diphthong. See § 118.

Ou is a Proper Diphthong. short u, as in enough; to oo, as in soup; to long o, as in though; to short o, as in cough; to broad a, as in ought; to u in bull, as in could; to long u, as in through.

See § 118. It is also equivalent to

The sound given to ou is peculiar to the English. In other languages the sound is represented by au or ow.

187. U represents normally three sounds: 1. The Long or diphthongal, as in mule. 2. The tenth elementary sound, as in bull. 3. The twelfth elementary sound, as in but. This last sound of u is peculiar to the English.

It is also equivalent to short i in busy, and to short e in bury. Ua, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to the Italian a, as in guard; to short a, as in guarantee; to long a, or wa, in persuade.

Ue is equivalent to long u, as in blue; to short e, as in guest; is silent, as in league.

Ui, an Improper Diphthong, has the sound of long i, as in guide; of short i, as in conduit; of long u, as in juice.

Uy, an Improper Diphthong, is equivalent to long i, as in buy.

W.

§ 188. W, from being partly a vowel and partly a consonant in its use, may be called a Semi-vowel. It has nearly the sound of oo, and represents the thirteenth elementary sound, as in wet. W before h is pronounced as if it were after the h; as, what, hwat. It takes its written form from the union of two v's, this being the form of the Roman capital letter which we call V. With o and e it forms diphthongs, as in now, new. It has often the same sound as u, as in drew. It is sometimes silent, as in write, whole. W is often joined to o at the end of a syllable without affecting the sound, as in grow. In Welsh it is sometimes used in a syllable without another vowel, as ful-fool. In some languages it has the sound of v.