flatness being a matter of indifference. When the vowel, however, was dropped, the consonants came in contact. This reduced a change on one side or the other to a matter of necessity. Liquid and vowel sounds, though vocal or flat, will combine with aspirated or sharp consonant sounds. If this were not the case, the combinations ap, at, alp, art, would be unpronounceable. The law exhibited above may be called the Law of Accommodation. Combinations like bt, kd, &c., may be called Incompatible Combinations."-PROFESSOR LATHAM's English Grammar, p. 29.

THE ACCUMULATION

OF

CONSONANTAL

ELEMENTS.

§ 136. Combinations are also unpronounceable from the accumulation of consonantal elements. This is evident from the nature of these elements. It is only saying that there is a limitation to the number of consonantal elements which can be brought together in one syllable.

The consonantal elements have the power of blending with each other in the same syllable in very different degrees. The elements represented by 7 and r have this power of blending with others in a very eminent degree. The element represented by s is distinguished among the surds for its power of blending with the other consonantal elements. The word restraints affords an instance, it is said, of as great a number of consonantal elements pronounceable in the same syllable as can be found in the language. Perhaps the possible number may be somewhat greater.

COMPARATIVE PHONOLOGY IN RESPECT TO COMBINATION.

COMBINATIONS NOT IN THE LANGUAGE.

§ 137. The English, like every other language, has its characteristic combinations. It has but few Nasal sounds in comparison with the French; but few Guttural sounds in comparison with the Hebrew; but few Rough-breathing or true aspirates in comparison with the Greek, and those mostly confined to compound words like off-hand, withhold, knife-handle; but few Reduplications of sound, and those confined to compound words like soulless, book-case.

In the Greek there are combinations of the elements indicated by 60 (phth), as in p0iais; by Tu (tm), as in Tuayev. In the Armenian there are syllables like stzges; in the Choctaw, like yvmmak; in the Welsh, like yspryd; in the Gaelic, like

dhaibk; in the Erse, like ndcanadh; in the Icelandic, like njala; in Wendish, like szvetloszti.

Combinations like these are altogether undesirable, it would seem, in any language; at least, we can felicitate ourselves that they are not found in the English language.

Having, in this chapter, examined the phonetic elements of the language in their pronounceable and their unpronounceable combinations, we are prepared in the next chapter to examine them in their actual combinations in syllables and words.

QUESTIONS UNDER CHAPTER II.

1. What classes of phonetic elements are pronounceable in combination? 2. What is said of the pronunciation of the consonantal sounds in combination?

3. Give three consonantal combinations which illustrate the answer to the last question.

4. What is said of a surd and of a sonant element in combination?

5. What is the reason that a surd and a sonant can not be pronounced ir combination?

6. What is said of a change of elements in pronunciation?

7. Give some illustrations: what does avt become? &c.

8. In what three classes of words is the fact stated in the section respect ing a change of elements of importance in its influence?

9. What is said of an accumulation of consonants?

10. What consonanted elements have eminently the power of blending with others?

11. What is said of the English in comparison with other languages in respect to combinations?

12. Are difficult combinations, like those found in some languages, desirable?

CHAPTER III.

COMBINATIONS IN SYLLABLES.

§ 138. CERTAIN combinations of the phonetic elements form SYLLABLES. A syllable, in the spoken language, is one or more elementary sounds pronounced by a single impulse of the voice, and constituting a word or a part of a word.

A syllable, in the written language, is a letter, or a combination of letters, which represent a syllable in the spoken language; as, an, wis-dom.

In the word man there are three elementary sounds, constituting one syllable in the spoken language. These three sounds are represented by the three letters m, a, n, which together constitute one syllable in the written language. The word syllable is from the Greek words oúv, with, and dabei, to take.

Every syllable in the spoken language contains at least one vocal element. This element is either a vowel or a liquid; as, Pat, prism, pronounced priz-m, in two syllables.

Every syllable in the written language has at least one vowel, but this is not always sounded in pronunciation; as, in the last syllables of ta-ble, rea-son, e-vil, nev-er.

NAMES OF WORDS FROM THEIR DIVISION INTO SYL

LABLES.

§ 139. Words consisting of single syllables are called monosyllables, from the Greek word povóc, alone; as, man, he. Words consisting of two syllables are called dissyllables, from the Greek word dis, twice; as, o-ver, un-der. Words consisting of three syllables are called trisyllables, from the Greek word rpiç, thrice; as, dis-a-ble, fa-ther-less. Words consisting of more than three syllables are called polysyllables, from the Greek word Toλús, many; as, fer-men-ta-tion.

4

PRINCIPLES OF DIVISION.

§ 140. The first principle for dividing words into syllables is etymological. A word made up of two words is naturally so divided as to keep the simple words separate in the pronunciation; as, cut-water, turn-spit, break-fast. So, also, a word formed by the addition of a grammatical suffix to the primitive is naturally so divided as to separate the suffix in the pronunciation; as, call-ing, love-ly, hunt-er. This principle is very extensive in its application.

2. The second principle is phonetical. Ease of pronunciation or melody of sound often determines the division of a word, in accordance with the phonology of the language. (See § 144.) In the application of these principles, certain general rules of syllabication have been laid down, which are subject to many exceptions.

§ 141. 1. Compound words must be divided into the words which compose them; as, Over-power, foot-man, con-template.

2. Grammatical terminations are generally separated from the primitive word; as, Teach-er, teach-est, vain-ly.

3. Two vowel elements coming together, and not forming a diphthong, are divided into separate syllables; as, Li-on, cru-el, de-ist.

4. In dissyllables, a single consonantal element between two vowel elements is joined to the latter; as, Pa-per, Ca-to, ro-ses. To this rule there are many exceptions; as, Ep-ic, pref-ace, up-on.

5. Two consonantal elements pronounceable in combination between two vowels must not be separated if the vowel of the preceding syllable is long; as, Fa-ble, sti-fle. But when they are unpronounceable in combination, they must be divided; as, Ut-most, under, in-sect.

6. In trisyllables, a single consonantal element between the penult and the antepenult (the last syllable but one and the last syllable but two) goes to the antepenult when accented; as, Mem-o-ry, sep-a-rate.

The etymological principle is of very extensive application, and yet, in settling the comparative value of the two principles in particular cases, the phonetical principle prevails over it; as, Orthography, epiph-any, wri-ter, pref-ace, instead of Ortho-graphy, epi-phany, writ-er, pre-face.

L

The objects aimed at in syllabication:

1. To enable the learner to discover the sounds of the words they are unacquainted with; or,

2. To show the etymology of the words; or,

3. To exhibit the exact pronunciation of them.

The maker of a spelling-book has the first object in view, an etymologist the second, an orthoepist the third, as in the preceding

rules.

BREATH ARRESTED AND BREATH ESCAPING.

§ 142. In pronouncing the sound of p in hap, the current of air is stopped by the closure of the lips. This may be called the sound. of breath arrested. In pronouncing the sound of p in py, the current of air issues from the lungs by the opening of the lips. This may be called the sound of breath escaping.

Now what may be said of p may be said of all the other consonants, the words tongue, teeth, &c., being used according to the

case.

In the formation of syllables, the sound of breath arrested belongs to the first, and the sound of breath escaping belongs to the second syllable, as in the word happy. The whole consonant belongs neither to one syllable nor to the other. Half of it belongs to each. The reduplication of the p in happy, the t in pitted, &c., is a mere point of spelling. See LATHAM's English Language, p. 162.

The combinations of sounds which are adopted in the language were chosen chiefly in reference to ease of pronunciation, while such as are difficult of utterance and disagreeable to the ear are rejected. As certain combinations of consonantal sounds (see § 64) are unpronounceable, so certain vowel sounds will not unite with each other. Accordingly, there must be in a word as many syllables as there are vowel sounds perceptible to the ear.

COMBINATIONS IN WORDS.

§ 143. A WORD in the spoken language is a syllable, or a combination of syllables, uttered by the human voice, expressing an idea, or the relation of an idea. A word in the written language is the letter, or the combination of letters which represent these sounds in the spoken language; as, a, art, under.

Words are divided by grammarians into PRIMITIVE and DERIVATIVE, SIMPLE and COMPOUND.

A primitive word is one which is not traceable to any other word in the language for its origin; as, Love, strong.