incarnating the God, may be well applied to the Athamantid sacrifice and to that of King Lycaon; for he derives his name from the divinity himself, and according to one version he offers his own child; and the Lycaonid legend presents one almost unique feature, which is only found elsewhere in legendary Dionysiac sacrifice, the human flesh is eaten, and the sacrifice is a cannibalistic-sacrament, of which the old Mexican religion offers conspicuous example. Yet it is in this religion of Zeus that we see most clearly the achievement of progressive morality; Zeus himself punishes and abolishes the savage practice; the story related by Plutarch, how a kid was substituted miraculously for Helen when she was led to the altar to be offered, is a remarkably close parallel to the biblical legend of Abraham's sacrifice of Isaac. We can now consider the special attributes of the anthropomorphic God. His character and power as a deity of the sky, who ruled the phenomena of the air, so clearly expressed in Homer, explains the greater part of his cult and cult-titles. More personal than Ouranos and Helios-with whom he has only slight associations-he was worshipped and invoked as the deity of the bright day ('Auάpios, Aevkaîos, Avкaîos), who sends the rain, the wind and dew ("Oμßptos, Náïos, Térios, Oupios, Eváveμos, 'Ikμaîos), and such a primitive adjective | as diners, applied to things "that fall from heaven," attests the primeval significance of the name of Zeus. But the thunder was his most striking manifestation, and no doubt he was primevally a thunder-God, Kepaivios, Kepavvoßóλos, Αστραπαίος. These cult-titles had originally the force of magic invocation, and much of his ritual was weather-magic: the priest of Zeus Avkatos, in time of drought, was wont to ascend Mount Lycaeum and dip an oak-bough in a sacred fountain, and by this sympathetic means produce mist. A god of this character would naturally be worshipped on the mountain-tops, and that these were very frequently consecrated to him is shown by the large number of appellatives derived from the names of mountains. But probably in his earliest Hellenic period the power of Zeus in the natural world was not limited to the sky. A deity who sent the fertilizing rains would come to be regarded as a god of vegetation, who descended into the earth and whose power worked in the life that wells forth from the earth in plant and tree. Also the close special association of the European Thunder-God and the oak-tree has recently been exposed. Homer calls the God of the lower world Ζεὺς Καταχθόνιος, and the title of Zeus Χθόνιος which was known to Hesiod, occurred in the worship of Corinth; and there is reason to believe that Eubouleus of Eleusis and Trophonius of Lebadeia are faded forms of the nether Zeus; in the Phrygian religion of Zeus, which no doubt contains primitive Aryan elements, we find the Thunder-God associated also with the nether powers. A glimpse into a very old stratum of Hellenic religion is afforded us by the records of Dodona. A Dodonean liturgy has been preserved which, though framed in the form of an invocation and a dogma, has the force of a spell-prayer-" Zeus was and is and will be, oh great Zeus: earth gives forth fruits, therefore call on Mother Earth." Zeus the Sky-God is seen here allied to the Earth-Goddess, of whom his feminine counterpart, Dione, may have been the personal form. And it is at Dodona that his association with the oak is of the closest. His prophet-priests the Selloi "with unwashed feet, couching on the ground," "10 lived about the sacred oak, which may be regarded" as the primeval shrine of the Aryan God, and interpreted its oracular voice, which spoke in the rustling of its leaves or the cooing of its doves. Achilles hails the Dodonean God as Ieλaoyué, either in the sense of "Thessalian " or 1 Clemens, Protrept. p. 31 P. Parallela, 35. Pausan. viii. 38, 3. 1900, on "The Oak Farnell, Cults of the Greek States, i. 154; ref. 66–89. and the Thunder-God." 7 Works and Days, 456; Pausan. ii. 2, 8. • Il. ix. 457. Pausan. X. 12, 10. "Chadwick, op. cit. | "primitive ";12 and Zeus, we may believe, long remained at Dodona such as he was when the Hellenic tribes first brought him down from the Balkans, a high God supreme in heaven and in earth. We may also believe that in the earliest stages of worship he had already acquired a moral and a social character. The Homeric view of him as the All-Father is a high spiritual concept, but one of which many savage religions of our own time are capable. The family, the tribe, the city, the simpler and more complex organisms of the Hellenic polity, were specially under his care and direction. In spite of the popular stories of his amours and infidelities, he is the patron-God of the monogamic marriage, and his union with Hera remained the divine type of human wedlock. "Reverence Zeus, the Father-God": "all fathers are sacred to Zeus, the Father-God, and all brothers to Zeus the God of the family ": these phrases of Aristophanes and Epictetus13 express the ideas that engendered his titles Ilarрços, гauýλios, Teλéîos, 'Oμoyvios. In the Eumenides of Aeschylus the Erinyes are reproached in that by aiding Clytemnestra, who slew her husband, they are dishonouring and bringing to naught the pledges of Zeus and Hera, the marriage-goddess"; and these were the divinities to whom sacrifice was offered before the wedding," and it may be that some kind of mimetic representation of the "Holy Marriage," the 'Iepòs yapos, of Zeus and Hera formed a part of the Attic nuptial ceremonies.16 The "Holy Marriage" was celebrated in many parts of Greece, and certain details of the ritual suggest that it was of great antiquity: here and there it may have had the significance of vegetation-magic," like the marriage of the Lord and Lady of May; but generally it seems to have been only regarded as a divine counterpart to the human ceremony. Society may have at one time been matrilinear in the communities that become the historic Hellenes; but of this there is no trace in the worship of Zeus and Hera.18 In fact, the whole of the family morality in Hellas centred in Zeus, whose altar in the courtyard was the bond of the kinsmen; and sins against the family, such as unnatural vice and the exposure of children, are sometimes spoken of as offences against the High God.19 He was also the tutelary deity of the larger organization of the phratria; and the altar of Zeus párpios was the meetingpoint of the phrateres, when they were assembled to consider the legitimacy of the new applicants for admission into their circle.20 His religion also came to assist the development of certain legal ideas, for instance, the rights of private or family property in land; he guarded the allotments as Zevs Kλápios,21 and the Greek commandment "thou shalt not remove thy neighbour's landmark " was maintained by Zeus "Opios, the god of boundaries, a more personal power than the Latin Jupiter Terminus.22 His highest political functions were summed up in the title Ioλeus, a cult-name of legendary antiquity in Athens, and frequent in the Hellenic world.23 His consort in his political life was not Hera, but his daughter Athena Polias. He sat in her judgment court él Пaλλadiw where cases of involuntary homicide were tried. With her he shared the chapel in the Council-Hall of Athens dedicated to them under the titles of Bovλaîos and Bovλaía, "the inspirers of counsel," by which they were worshipped in many parts of 12 Il. xvi. 233. 13 Arist. Nub. 1468; Epict. Diatrib. iii. ch. 11. 16 Photius, s.v. 'Iepòs váμos. 15 Schol. Aristoph. Thesm. 973 17 See Frazer's Golden Bough, 2nd ed. i. 226-227. 15 The attempts to discover the traces of matrilinear society in Greek religion may be regarded as mainly unsuccessful: vide A. B. Cook, Class. Rev. 1906 (October, November), "Who was the wife of Zeus?" 19 Dio. Chrys. Or. 7 (Dind. i. 139). Plato's Laws, 842 E. 1. Zeus surrounded by Deities. 8. Alcmena, possibly another name for 7. Greece. The political assembly and the law-court were conse- | account, a pupil of Damophilus of Himera in Sicily, the other crated to Zeus 'Ayopaîos, and being the eternal source of justice statement being that he was a pupil of Neseus of Thasos. Afterhe might be invoked as Aikatóovvos “The Just." As the god wards he appears to have resided in Ephesus. His known who brought the people under one government he might be works areworshipped as Пávonuos; as the deity of the whole of Hellas, 'EXλávos, a title that belonged originally to Acgina and to the prehistoric tribe of the Acacidae, and had once the narrower application to the "Thessalian Hellenes," but acquired the Pan-Hellenic sense, in fact expanded into the form Ilaveλλnvios, perhaps about the time of the Persian wars, when thanksgiving for the victory took the form of dedications and sacrifice to "Zeus the Liberator "-'Eλevėptos. Finally, in the formulae adopted for the public oath, where many deities were invoked, the name of Zeus was the masterword. 4. 5. Centaur family. 6. Borcas or Triton. 7. Infant Heracles strangling the 9. Helena at Croton. 13. An old Woman. 16. Monochromes 17.. Plastic works in clay. There is reason for thinking that this political character of In ancient records we are told that Zeuxis, following the Zeus belongs to the earliest period of his religion, and it re-initiative of Apollodorus, had introduced into the art of paintmained as long as that religion lasted. Yet in one respecting a method of representing his figures in light and shadow, Apollo was more dominant in the political life; for Apollo as opposed to the older method of outline, with large flat possessed the more powerful oracle of Delphi. Zeus spoke masses of colour for draperies, and other details, such as had directly to his people at Dodona only, and with authority only been practised by Polygnotus and others of the great fresco in ancient times; for owing to historical circumstances and painters. The new method led to smaller compositions, and the disadvantage of its position, Dodona paled before Delphi. often to pictures consisting of only a single figure, on which it It remains to consider briefly certain moral aspects of his was more easy for the painter to demonstrate the combined cult. The morality attaching to the oath, so deeply rooted in effect of the various means by which he obtained perfect roundthe conscience of primitive peoples, was expressed in the cult ness of form. The effect would appear strongly realistic, as of Zeus Opkios, the God who punished perjury. The whole compared with the older method, and to this was probably due history of Greek legal and moral conceptions attaching to the the origin of such stories as the contest in which Zeuxis painted guilt of homicide can be studied in relation to the cult-appella- a bunch of grapes so like reality that birds flew towards it, tives of Zeus. The Greek consciousness of the sin of murder, while Parrhasius painted a curtain which even Zeuxis mistook only dimly awakened in the Homeric period, and only sensitive for real. It is perhaps a variation of this story when we are at first when a kinsman or a suppliant was slain, gradually told (Pliny) that Zeuxis also painted a boy holding grapes expands till the sanctity of all human life becomes recognized towards which birds flew, the artist remarking that if the by the higher morality of the people: and the names of Zeus boy had been as well painted as the grapes the birds would Maxixios, the dread deity of the ghost-world whom the sinner have kept at a distance. But, if the method of Zeuxis led him must make "placable," of Zeus 'Ixéotos and ПIpoσтporaîos, to to real roundness of form, to natural colouring, and to pictures whom the conscience-striken outcast may turn for mercy and consisting of single figures or nearly so, it was likely to lead pardon, play a guiding-part in this momentous evolution.' him also to search for striking attitudes or motives, which by Even this suramary reveals the deep indebtedness of early the obviousness of their meaning should emulate the plain Greek civilization to this cult, which engendered ideas of im- intelligibility of the larger compositions of older times. Lucian, portance for the higher religious thought of the race, and which in his Zeuxis, speaks of him as carrying this search to a novel might have developed into a monotheistic religion, had a and strange degree, as illustrated in the group of a female prophet-philosopher arisen powerful enough to combat the Centaur with her young. When the picture was exhibited, the polytheistic proclivities of Hellas. Yet the figure of Zeus had spectators admired its novelty and overlooked the skill of the almost faded from the religious world of Hellas some time painter, to the vexation of Zeuxis. The pictures of Heracles before the end of paganism; and Lucian makes him complain strangling the serpents to the astonishment of his father and that even the Egyptian Anubis is more popular than he, and mother (7), Penelope (10), and Menclaus Weeping (11) are that men think they have done the outworn God sufficient quoted as instances in which strong motives naturally presented honour if they sacrifice to him once in five years at Olympia. themselves to him. But, in spite of the tendency towards The history of religions supplies us with many examples of the realism inherent in the new method of Zeuxis, he is said to have High God losing his hold on the people's consciousness and retained the ideality which had characterized his predecessors. love. In the case of this cult the cause may well have been a Of all his known works it would be expected that this quality certain coldness, a lack of enthusiasm and mystic ardour, in would have appeared best in his famous picture of Helena, for the service. These stimulants were offered rather by Demeter this reason, that we cannot conceive any striking or effective and Dionysus, later by Cybele, Isis and Mithras. incident for him in her carcer. In addition to this, however, Quintilian states (Inst. Orat. xii. 10, 4) that in respect of robustness of types Zeuxis had followed Homer, while there is the fact that he had inscribed two verses of the Iliad (iii 156 seq.) under his figure of Helena. As models for the picture he was allowed the presence of five of the most beautiful maidens of Croton at his own request, in order that he might be able to "transfer the truth of life to a mute image." Cicero (De Invent. ii. 1, 1) assumed that Zeuxis had found distributed among these five the various elements that went to make up a figure of ideal beauty. It should not, however, be understood that the painter had made up his figure by the process of combining the good points of various models, but rather that he found among those models the points that answered to the ideal Helena in his own mind, and that he merely required the models to guide and correct himself by during the process of transferring his ideal to form and colour. This picture also is said to have been exhibited publicly, with the result that Zeuxis made much profit out of it. By this and other means, BIBLIOGRAPHY.-For older authorities see Preller-Robert, Griechische Mythologic, i. pp. 115-159; Welcker's Griechische Gotterlehre, ii. pp. 178-216; among recent works, Gruppe's Griechische Mythologie, ii. pp. 1100-1121; Farnell's Cults of the Greek States, vol. i. pp. 35-178; Daremberg and Saglio, Dictionnaire des antiquités grecques et romaines, S.V., Jupiter "; A. B. Cook's articles in Classical Review, 1903-1904, Zeus, Jupiter, and the Oak": for cultmonuments and art-representations, Overbeck, Kunst-Mythologie, (L. R. F.) vol. i. ZEUXIS, a Greek painter, who flourished about 420-390 B.C., and described himself as a native of Heraclea, meaning probably the town on the Black Sea. He was, according to one 1 Antiphon vi. p. 789; Pausan. i. 3, 5: cf. Corp. Inscr. Altic. iii. 683. 2 Farnell, op. cit. vol. i. p. 162. Amer. Journ. Archaeol., 1905. p. 302. C. I. A. 3. 7. Head, Hist. Num. p. 569. we are told, he became so rich as rather to give away his pictures than to sell them. He presented his Alcmena to the Agrigentines, his Pan to King Archelaus of Macedonia, whose palace he is also said to have decorated with paintings. According to Pliny (N.H. xxxv. 62), he made an ostentatious display of his wealth at Olympia in having his name woven in letters of gold on his dress. Under his picture of an athlete (12) he wrote that "It is easier to revile than to rival" (μwuńoetal tis μāλλov ĥ μμhoerai). A contemporary, Isocrates (De Permut. 2), remarks that no one would say that Zeuxis and Parrhasius had the same profession as those persons who paint pinakia, or tablets of terra-cotta. We possess many examples of the vasepainting of the period circa 400 B.C., and it is noticeable on them that there is great freedom and facility in drawing the human form, besides great carelessness. In the absence of fresco paintings of that date we have only these vases to fall back upon. Yet, with their limited resources of colour and perspective, they in a measure show the influence of Zeuxis, while, as would be expected, they retain perhaps more of the simplicity of older times. ZHELESNOVODSK, a health resort of Russian Caucasia, in the province of Terek, lying at an altitude of 1885 ft. on the S. slope of the Zhelesnaya Gora (2805 ft.), 11 m. by rail N.N.W. from Pyatigorsk. It possesses chalybeate springs of temperature 56-96° Fahr.; the buildings over the springs were erected in 1893. The season lasts from early in June to the middle of September. ZHITOMIR, or JITOMIR, a town of western Russia, capital of the government of Volhynia, on the Teterev river, 83 m. W.S.W. of Kiev. Pop. (1900) 80,787, more than one-third Jews. It is the see of an archbishop of the Orthodox Greek Church and of a Roman Catholic bishop. Two printing offices in Zhitomir issue nearly one-half of all the Hebrew books printed in Russia. The Jewish merchants carry on a considerable export trade in agricultural produce, and in timber and wooden wares from the forests to the north. Kid gloves, tobacco, dyes and spirits are manufactured. It was Zhitomir is a very old city, tradition tracing its foundation as far back as the times of the Scandinavian adventurers, Askold and Dir (9th century). The annals, however, mention it chiefly in connexion with the invasions of the Tatars, who plundered it in the 13th, 14th and 17th centuries (1606), or in connexion with destructive conflagrations. It fell under Lithuanian rule in 1320, and during the 15th century was one of the chief cities of the kingdom. Later it became part of Poland, and when the Cossacks rose under their chieftain, Bogdan Chmielnicki (1648), they sacked the town. annexed to Russia along with the rest of the Ukraine in 1778. ZHOB, a valley and river in the N.E. of Baluchistan. The Zhob is a large valley running from the hills near Ziarat first eastward and then northward parallel to the Indus frontier, till it meets the Gomal river at Khajuri Kach. It thus becomes a strategic line of great importance, as being the shortest route between the North-West Frontier Province and Quetta, and dominates all the Pathan tribes of Baluchistan by cutting between them and Aighanistan. Up to the year 1884 it was practically unknown to Europeans, but the Zhob Valley Expedition of that year opened it up, and in 1889 the Zhob Valley and Gomal Pass were taken under the control of the British Government. The Zhob Valley was the scene of punitive British expeditions in 1884 and 1890. In 1890 Zhob was formed into a district or political agency, with its headquarters at Fort Sandeman: pop. (1901) 3552. As reconstituted in 1003, the district has an area of 9626 sq. m.; pop. (1901) 69,718, mostly Pathans of the Kakar tribe. See Sir T. H. Holdich's Indian Borderland (1901); Bruce's Forward Policy (1900); McFall's With the Zhob Field Force (1895); and Zhob District Gazetteer (Bombay, 1907). ZIARAT ("a Mahommedan shrine "), the summer residence of the chief commissioner of Baluchistan, and sanatorium for the European troops at Quetta: 8850 ft. above the sea and | 33 m. by cart-road from the railway. There is a good watersupply, and the hills around are well-wooded and picturesque. ZICHY (of Zich and Vásonykeö), the name of a noble Magyar family, conspicuous in Hungarian history from the latter part of the 13th century onwards. Its first authentic ancestor bore the name of Zayk, and this was the surname of the family until it came into possession of Zich in the 15th century. It first came into great prominence in the 16th century, being given countly rank in 1679 in the person of the imperial general Stefan Zichy (d. 1693). His descendants divided, first into two branches: those of Zichy-Palota and Zichy-Karlburg. The Palota line, divided again into three: that of Nagy-Láng, that of Adony and Szent-Miklós, and that of Palota, which died out in the male line in 1874. The line of Zichy-Karlburg (since 1811 Zichy-Ferraris) split into four branches: that of Vedröd, that of Vézsony, and those of Daruvár and Csicsó, now extinct. COUNT KÁROLY ZICHY (1753-1826) was Austrian war minister in 1809 and minister of the interior in 1813-1814; his son, COUNT FERDINÁND (1783–1862) was the Austrian field-marshal condemned to ten years' imprisonment for surrendering Venice to the insurgents in 1848 (he was pardoned in 1851). COUNT ÖDÖN [EDMUND] ZICHY (1809-1848), administrator of the county of Veszprém, was hanged on the 30th of September 1848 by order of a Hungarian court-martial, presided over by Görgei, for acting as Jellachich's emissary to the imperial general Roth. COUNT FERENC ZICHY (1811-1900) was secretary of state for commerce in the Széchényi ministry of 1848, but retired on the outbreak of the revolution, joined the imperial side, and acted as imperial commissary; from 1874 to 1880 he was Austrian ambassador at Constantinople. COUNT ÖDÖN ZICHY (1811-1894) was remarkable for his great activity in promoting art and industry in Austria-Hungary; he founded the Oriental Museum in Vienna. His son, COUNT EUGEN ZICHY (b. 1837), inherited his father's notable collections, and followed him in his economic activities; he three times visited the Caucasus and Central Asia to investigate the original seat of the Magyars, publishing as the result Voyages au Caucase (2 vols., Budapest, 1897) and Drille asiatische Forschungsreise (6 vols., in Magyar and German; Budapest and Leipzig, 19001905). COUNT FERDINÁND ZICHY (b. 1829), vice-president of the Hungarian stadtholdership under the Mailáth régime, was condemned in 1863 under the press laws to the loss of his titles and to imprisonment. In 1867 he was elected to the Hungarian parliament, at first joining the party of Deák, and subsequently becoming one of the founders and leaders of the Catholic People's Party (see HUNGARY, History). His second son, COUNT ALADÁR ZICHY (b. 1864), also a member of the Catholic People's Party, was made minister of the royal household in the Wekerle cabinet of 1906. COUNT JÁNOS ZICHY (b. 1868), also from 1896 to 1906 a member of the Catholic People's Party in the Lower House, and after 1906 attached to Andrássy's Constitutional Party, was of importance as the confidant of the heir to the throne, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand. COUNT GÉZA ZICHY (b. 1849), nephew of the Count Ferenc mentioned above, studied under Liszt and became a professional pianist; in 1891 he became intendant of the Hungarian national opera-house, a member of the Hungarian Upper House and head of the Conservatoire at Budapest. COUNT MIHÁLY ZICHY (b. 1829), one of the most conspicuous Hungarian painters, was appointed court painter at St Petersburg in 1847 and accompanied the Russian emperors on their various journeys. The National Gallery at Budapest possesses some of his paintings, notably that of "Queen Elizabeth before the coffin of Francis Deák "; but he is best known for his illustrations of the works of the great Magyar writers (Petöfy. Arany, &c.). ). ZIEM, FÉLIX FRANÇOIS GEORGE PHILIBERT (1821French painter, was born at Beaune (Côte d'Or) in 1821. Having studied at the art school of Dijon, where he carried off the grand prix for architecture, he went to Rome in 1839 and there continued his studies. The years from 1845 to 1848 brilliant battle of the 18th century, Zieten's cavalry began the fighting and completed the rout of the Austrians. He continued, during the whole of the war, to be one of Frederick's most trusted generals. Almost the only error in his career of battles was his misdirection of the frontal attack at Torgau, but he redeemed the mistake by his desperate assault on the Siptitz heights, which eventually decided the day. At the peace, General Zieten went into retirement, the hero alike of the army and the people. He died in 1786. Six years later Frederick's successor erected a column to his memory on the Wilhelmsplatz in Berlin. were spent in travel in the south of France, Italy and the East, was the only victorious corps of troops. At Leuthen, the most where he found the glowing sunlight and the rich colour peculiarly suited to his temperament. His reputation is, however, not based so much on his orientalist canvases as on his pictures of Venice, which are generally characterized by the intensity of the sunny glow on the red sails and golden-yellow buildings under a deep blue sky. Many of his Venetian pictures are purely imaginative, and their appeal is entirely due to their qualities of colour, his architectural drawing being frequently faulty and careless. After "Sunrise at Stamboul," which Théodore Gautier called "the finest picture of modern times," he received the Legion of Honour in 1857, and was made an officer in 1878. The majority of his paintings have gone to American private collections, but two of his finest pictures, "The Doge's Palace in Venice" (1852), and a marinepainting, are at the Luxembourg Museum, and a "View of Quai St Jean, Marseilles" at the Marseilles Gallery, whilst many others are to be found in the leading private collections of modern pictures in France, England and Germany. In collaboration with Luc de Vos he illustrated The Death of Paganini. See Félix Ziem, by L. Roger-Milès (Librairie de l'art, Paris). ZIERIKSEE, a town in the province of Zeeland, Holland, on the south side of the island of Schouwen. Pop. 6800. It is a very old town, and formerly flourished exceedingly on account of its trade and fishing, and important salt-making industry, and now is the chief market centre and port in the island. Among the principal buildings are the town-hall (15th century); the Great Church, which was rebuilt after a fire in 1832, but retains the lofty tower (1454) belonging to the earlier building; the Little Church, the prison and the exchange. The chief public square occupies the site of a residence of the counts of Zeeland dating from 1048. ZIETEN, HANS JOACHIM VON (1699-1786), Prussian general-field-marshal, began his military career as a volunteer in an infantry regiment. He retired after ten years' service, but soon afterwards became a lieutenant of dragoons. Being involved in some trade transactions of his squadron-commander, he was cashiered, but by some means managed to obtain reinstatement, and was posted to a hussar corps, then a new arm. At that time light cavalry work was well known only to the Austrians, and in 1735 Rittmeister von Zieten made the Rhine campaign under the Austrian general Baronay. In 1741, when just promoted lieutenant-colonel, Zieten met his old teacher in battle and defeated him at the action of Rothschloss. The chivalrous Austrian sent him a complimentary letter a few days later, and Winterfeld (who was in command at Rothschloss) reported upon his conduct so favourably that Zieten was at once marked out by Frederick the Great for high command. Within the year he was colonel of the newly formed Hussar regiment, and henceforward his promotion was rapid. In the " Moravian Foray" of the following year Zieten and his hussars penetrated almost to Vienna, and in the retreat to Silesia he was constantly employed with the rearguard. Still more distinguished was his part in the Second Silesian War. In the short peace, the hussars, like the rest of the Prussian cavalry, had undergone a complete reformation; to iron discipline they had added the dash and skirmishing qualities of the best irregulars, and the hussars were considered the best of their arm in Europe. Zieten fought the brilliant action of Moldau Tein almost on the day he received his commission as major-general. In the next campaign he led the famous Zielenritt round the enemy's lines with the object of delivering the king's order to a distant detachment. At HohenfriedbergStriegau and at Katholisch-Hennersdorf the hussars covered themselves with glory. Hennersdorf and Kesselsdorf ended the second war, but the Prussian army did not rest on its laurels, and their training during the ten years' peace was careful and unceasing. When the Seven Years' War broke out in 1756 Zieten had just been made lieutenant-general. At Reichenberg and at Prag he held important commands, and at the disastrous battle of Kolin (18th June 1757) his left wing of cavalry See the Lives by his daughter, Frau von Blumenthal (Berlin. 1800), by Hahn (5th ed., Berlin, 1878), by Lippe-Weissenfeld (2nd ed., Berlin, 1878), and by Winter (Leipzig, 1886). ZIMBABWE, a Bantu name, probably derived from the two words zimba (“houses ") and mabgi (" stones "), given to certain ruins in South-East Africa. Its use is not confined to Southern Rhodesia and should not properly be restricted to any one particular site. For, as the medieval Portuguese stated, it is merely a generic term for the capital of any considerable chief, and it has been applied even by them to several distinct places. From about 1550 onwards the Zimbabwe generally referred to by Portuguese writers was at a spot a little north of the Afur district, not far from the Zambezi. There is some reason, however, to suppose that before this the capital of the Monomotapa was situated much farther south, and it may plausibly be identified with the most extensive ruins as yet known, viz. those near Victoria (Mashonaland) to which popular usage has now attached par excellence the name of Zimbabwe. These ruins were discovered by Adam Renders in 1868 and explored by Karl Mauch in 1871. They became well known to English readers from J. T. Bent's account of the Ruined Cities of Mashonaland, but the popularity of that work disseminated a romance concerning their age and origin which was only dispelled when scientific investigations undertaken in 1905 showed it to be wholly without historical warrant. Even before this it had been clear to archaeologists and ethnologists that there was no evidence to support the popular theory that Zimbabwe had been built in very ancient days by some Oriental people. Swan's measurements, which had misled Bent into accepting a chronology based on a supposed orientation of the "temple," had been shown to be inexact. There was no authentic instance of any inscription having been found there or elsewhere in Rhodesia. Numerous objects had been discovered in the course of excavations, but not one of them could be recognized as more than a few centuries old, while those that were not demonstrably foreign imports were of African type. The explorations conducted in 1905 added positive evidence. For it was proved that the medieval objects were found in such positions as to be necessarily contemporaneous with the foundation of the buildings, and that there was no superposition of periods of any date whatsoever. Finally from a comparative study of several ruins it was established that the plan and construction of Zimbabwe are by no means unique, and that this site only differs from others in Rhodesia in respect of the great dimensions and the massiveness of its individual buildings. It may confidently be dated to a period not earlier than the 14th or 15th century A.D., and attributed to the same Bantu people the remains of whose stone-fenced kraals are found at so many places between the Limpopo and the Zambezi. The There are three distinct though connected groups of ruins at Zimbabwe, which are commonly known as the "Elliptical Temple," the Acropolis" and the "Valley Ruins." most famous is the first, which is doubly misnamed, since it is not a temple and its contour is too unsymmetrical to be described properly as elliptical. It is an irregular enclosure over 800 ft. in circumference, with a maximum length of 292 ft. and a maximum breadth of 220 ft., surrounded by a dry-built wall of extraordinary massiveness. This wall is in places over 30 ft. high and 14 ft. wide, but is very erratic in outline and variable in thickness. The most carefully executed part is on the south and south-east, where the wall is decorated by a row of granite monoliths beneath which runs a double line of chevron ornament. The interior has been much destroyed by the ravages of gold-seekers and amateur excavators. Enough, however, remains to show that the scheme was a combination of such a stone kraal as that at Nanatali with the plan of a fort like those found about Inyanga. The only unique feature is the occurrence of a large and a small conical tower at the southern end, which Bent and others considered to be representatives of the human phallus. Their form, however, is not sufficiently characteristic to warrant this identification, though it may be noted that the nearest approximation to phallic worship is found amongst the most typical of African peoples, viz. the Ewe-speaking natives of the West Coast. The floor of the enclosure is constituted as in the other Zimbabwe buildings by a thick bed of cement which extends even outside the main wall. This cement mass is heightened at many places so as to make platforms and supports for huts. Groups of these dwellings are enclosed by subsidiary stone walls so as to form distinct units within the larger precinct. 24 The "Acropolis" is in some ways more remarkable than the great kraal which has just been described. It is a hill rising 200 to 300 ft. above the valley, fortified with the minutest care and with extraordinary ingenuity. The principles of construction, the use of stone and cement are the same as in the 'elliptical" kraal, there is no definite plan, the shape and arrangement of the enclosures being determined solely by the natural features of the ground. Between this and the "elliptical" kraal are the "Valley Ruins," consisting of smaller buildings which may have been the dwellings of those traders who bartered the gold brought in from distant mines. Zimbabwe was probably the distributing centre for the gold traffic carried on in the middle ages between subjects of the Monomotapa and the Mahommedans of the coast. Compare also the articles RHODESIA Archaeology, and ΜΟΝΟΜΟΤΑΡΑ. See D. Randall-MacIver, Mediaeval Rhodesia (London, 1906); Journal of Anthrop. Inst., vol. xxxv.; Geog. Journal (1906); Mauch's report in Ausland (1872) is now only of bibliographical interest, while Bent's Ruined Cities of Mashonaland (1892) and R. N. Hall's Great Zimbabwe (1905) are chiefly valuable for their illustrations.1 (D. R.-M.) ZIMMERMANN, JOHANN GEORG, RITTER VON (17281795), Swiss philosophical writer and physician, was born at Brugg, in the canton of Aargau, on the 8th of December 1728. He studied at Göttingen, where he took the degree of doctor of medicine; and he established his reputation by the dissertation, De irritabilitate (1751). After travelling in Holland and France, he practised as a physician in his native place, and here he wrote Über die Einsamkeit (1756, emended and enlarged, 1784-85) and Vom Nationalstolz (1758). These books made a great impression in Germany, and were translated into almost every European language. They are now only of historical interest. In Zimmermann's character there was a strange combination of sentimentalism, melancholy and enthusiasm; and it was by the free and eccentric expression of these qualities that he excited the interest of his contemporaries. Another book by him, written at Brugg, Von der Erfahrung in der Arzneiwissenschaft (1764), also attracted much attention. In 1768 he settled at Hanover as private physician of George III. with the title of Hofrat. Catherine II invited him to the court of St Petersburg, but this invitation he declined. He attended Frederick the Great during that monarch's last illness, and afterwards issued various books about him, of which the chief were Über Friederich den Grossen und meine Unterredung mit ihm kurz vor seinem Tode (1788) and Fragmente über Friedrich den Grossen (1790). These writings display extraordinary [In 1909 Hall published another volume, Prehistoric Rhodesia, in which he maintained, in emphatic opposition to Dr MacIver's conclusions, that the ruins were of ancient date and not the unaided work of Bantu negroes. See the review by Sir Harry Johnston in the Geog. Jnl., Nov. 1909. Ed.l personal vanity, and convey a wholly false impression of Frederick's character. Zimmermann died at Hanover on the 7th of October 1795. See A. Rengger, Zimmermann's Briefe an einige seiner Freunde in der Schweiz (1830); E. Bodemann, Johann Georg Zimmermann, sein Leben und bisher ungedruckle Briefe an ihn Hann., 1878); and R. Ischer, Johann Georg Zimmermann's Leben und Werke (Berne, 1893). ZINC, a metallic chemical element; its symbol is Zn, and atomic weight 65.37 (0=16), Zinc as a component of brass (xaλkós, ópei-xaλkos) had currency in metallurgy long before it became known as an individual metal. Aristotle refers to brass as the "metal of the Mosynoeci," which is produced as a bright and light-coloured xaλkós, not by addition of tin, but by fusing up with an earth. Pliny explicitly speaks of a mineral Kadueia or cadmia as serving for the conversion of copper into aurichalcum, and says further that the deposit (of zinc oxide) formed in the brass furnaces could be used instead of the mineral. The same process was used for centuries after Pliny, but its rationale was not understood. Stahl, as late as 1702, quoted the formation of brass as a case of the union of a metal with an earth into a metallic compound; but he subsequently adopted the view propounded by Kunckel in 1677, that "cadmia is a metallic calx, and that it dyes the copper yellow by giving its metal up to it. The word zinc (in the form zinken) was first used by Paracelsus, who regarded it as a bastard or semi-metal, but the word was subsequently used for both the metal and its ores. Moreover, zinc and bismuth were confused, and the word spiauter (the modern spelter) was indiscriminately given to both these metals. In 1597 Libavius described a peculiar kind of tin" which was prepared in India, and of which a friend had given him a quantity. From his account it is quite clear that that metal was zinc, but he did not recognize it as the metal of calamine. It is not known to whom the discovery of isolated zinc is due; but we do know that the art of zinc-smelting was practised in England from about 1730. The first continental zinc-works were erected at Liége in 1807. Occurrence.-Zinc does not occur free in nature, but in combination it is widely diffused. The chief ore is zinc blende, or sphalerite (see BLENDE), which generally contains, in addition to zinc sulphide, small amounts of the sulphides of iron, silver and cadmium. It may also be accompanied by pyrites, galena, arsenides and antimonides, quartz, calcite, dolomite, &c. It is widely distributed, and is particularly abundant in Germany (the Harz, Silesia), Austro-Hungary, Belgium, the United States and in England (Cumberland, Derbyshire, Cornwall, North Wales). Second in importance is the carbonate, calamine (q v.) or zinc spar, which at one time was the principal ore; it almost invariably contains the carbonates of cadmium, iron, manganese, magnesium and calcium, and may be contaminated with clay, oxides of iron, galena and calcite; "white " to calamine" owes its colour to much clay; "red calamine admixed iron and manganese oxides. Calamine chiefly occurs in Spain, Silesia and in the United States. Of less importance is the silicate, Zn2SiO4 HO, named electric calamine or hemimorphite; this occurs in quantity in Altenburg near Aix-laChapelle, Sardinia, Spain and the United States (New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Missouri, Wisconsin). Other zinc minerals are willemite (qv), ZngSiO1, hydrozincite or zinc bloom, ZnCO ̧•2Zn(OH)2, zincite (q.v.) or red zinc ore, ZnO, and franklinite, 3(Fe,Zn)O (Fe, Mn)2O3. Production. Until about 1833 the supply of zinc was almost entirely obtained from Germany, but in this year Russia began derived from Germany. Belgium entered in 1837 with an output to contribute about 2000 tons annually to the 6000 to 7000 of about 2000 tons; England in 1855 with 3000; and the United States in 1873 with 6000 tons. The productions of Germany, Belgium and the United States have enormously and fairly regularly increased; the rise has been most rapid in the United From the name of this tribe the German word Messing, brass, is undoubtedly derived (see K. B. Hoffmann, Zeit. f Berg. und Hüttenwesen, vol. 41). |