and Ryedale; the archdeaconry of East Riding, comprising the deaneries of Harthill (Hull), Buckrose, Dickering and Holderness; and the archdeaconry of Richmond, comprising the deaneries of Richmond, Catterick, Boroughbridge and Lonsdale. In 1541 the deaneries of Richmond were transferred to Henry VIII.'s new diocese of Chester. Ripon was created an episcopal see by act of parliament in 1836, and the deaneries of Craven and Pontefract were formed into the archdeaconry of Craven within its jurisdiction, together with the archdeaconry of Richmond. The archdeaconry of Sheffield was created in 1884 to include the deaneries of Sheffield, Rotherham, Ecclesfield and Wath. In 1888 the area of the diocese of Ripon was reduced by the creation of the see of Wakefield, including the archdeaconry of Halifax with the deaneries of Birstall, Dewsbury, Halifax, Silkstone and Wakefield, and the archdeaconry and deanery of Huddersfield. The diocese of Ripon now includes in this county the archdeaconries of Craven with three deaneries, Richmond with three deaneries and Ripon with seven deaneries. The diocese of York includes the archdeaconries of York with six deaneries, Sheffield with four deaneries, East Riding with thirteen deaneries and Cleveland with nine deaneries.

way tower erected in the reign of Henry VI. The castle, said to
archbishops of York, and Wolsey resided in it.
have been founded by Ethelstan in 620, was the palace of the
Castle stands by the Don between Rotherham and Doncaster. Its
Conisborough
origin is uncertain, but dates probably from Saxon times. The
keep and portions of the walls remain; and the ruin possesses
ruins of Danby Castle, which is supposed to have been built shortly
additional interest from its treatment in Scott's Ivanhoe. The
after the Conquest by Robert de Bruce or Brus, are of various dates
Harewood Castle in lower Wharfedale was founded soon after the
Conquest, but contains no portions earlier than the reign of Edward
III. The keep of Helmsley Castle was built late in the 12th century
probably by Robert de Ros, surnamed Fursan; the earthworks are
apparently of much earlier date. There are picturesque remains
of the quadrangular fortress of Middleham in Wensleydale, built
in the 12th century by Robert FitzRanulph, afterwards possessed
by the Nevilles, and rendered untenable by order of parliament in
1647. Mulgrave Castle, near the modern residence of the same
name in the Whitby district, is said to have been founded two
centuries before the Conquest by a Saxon giant named Wade or
Wadda. Parts are clearly Norman, but some of the masonry
suggests an earlier date. The castle was dismantled after the
Ravensworth Castle, near Richmond. This was probably an early
civil wars. There are slight remain, of the 15th century, of
foundation of the family of Fitz Hugh. Sheriff Hutton Castle,
between York and Malton, was the foundation of Bertram de Bulmer
in the reign of Stephen; the remains are of the early part of the
15th century, when the property passed to the Nevilles. Spofforth
Castle, near Harrogate, was erected by Henry de Percy in 1309.
Its ruins range from the period of foundation to the 15th century.
Of Tickhill Castle, near Doncaster, built or enlarged by Roger de
Busli in the 11th century, there are foundations of the keep and
fragments of the walls. Of Whorlton Castle in Cleveland, the
Perpendicular gatehouse is very fine. One side remains of the
great quadrangular fortress of Wressell, E. of Selby, built by Thomas
Percy, earl of Worcester, in the reign of Richard II. Some of the
mansions in the county incorporate remains of ancient strongholds,
such as those at Gilling, under the Hambleton Hills in the North
Riding, Ripley near Harrogate, and Skelton in Cleveland. Medieval
mansions are numerous, a noteworthy example being the Eliza.
bethan hall of Burton Agnes, in the N. of Holderness.

In ecclesiastical architecture Yorkshire is extraordinarily rich At the time of the Dissolution there were 28 abbeys, 26 priories, 23 nunneries, 30 friaries, 13 cells, 4 commanderies of Knights Hospitallers and 4 preceptories of Knights Templars. The principal monastic ruins are described under separate headings and elsewhere. These are Bolton Abbey (properly Priory), a foundation of Augustinian canons; Fountains Abbey, a Cistercian foundation, the finest and most complete of the ruined abbeys in England; the Cistercian abbey of Kirkstall near Leeds (q.v.); the Cistercian abbey of Rievaulx, and the Benedictine abbey of St Mary, at York. For the plans and buildings of Fountains, Kirkstall and St Mary's, York, see ABBEY. Separate reference is also made to the ruins of Jervaulx (Cistercian) and Coverham (Premonstratensian) in Wensleydale, and to the remains at Bridlington, Guisborough, Malton, Whitby, Easby near Richmond, Kirkham near Malton, Monk Bretton near Barnsley, and Mount Grace near Northallerton. There are fine though scanty remains of Byland Abbey, of Early English date, between Thirsk and Malton; the abbey was founded for Cistercian monks in the 12th century, and was previously established at Old Byland near Rievaulx. There was a house of Premonstratensians at Egglestone above the Tees near Barnard Castle. Other ruins are the Cistercian foundations of the 12th century at Meaux in Holderness, Roche, E. of Rotherham, and Sawley in Ribblesdale; the Benedictine nunneries of Marrick in upper Swaledale, and Rosedale under the high moors of the N.E.; and the Gilbertine house of Watton in Holderness, of the 12th century, converted into a dwelling.

The great woollen industry of Yorkshire originated soon after the Conquest, and the further development of this and other characteristic industries may be traced in the articles on the various industrial centres. The time of the American War marked the gradual absorption by Yorkshire of the clothing trade from the E. counties. Coal appears to have been used in Yorkshire by the Romans, and was dug at Leeds in the 13th century. The early fame of Sheffield as the centre of the cutlery and iron trade is demonstrated by the line in Chaucer, "a Sheffield whitel bore he in his hose.' In the 13th century a forge is mentioned at Rosedale, and the canons of Gisburn had four "fabricae" in blast in Glaisdale in Cleveland. In the 16th century limestone was dug in many parts of Elmet, and Huddlestone, Hesselwood and Tadcaster had famous quarries; Pontefract was famous for its liquorice, Aberford for its pins, Whitby for its jet. Alum was dug at Guisborough, Sandsend, Dunsley and Whitby in the 17th century, and a statute of 1659 forbade the importation of alum from abroad, in order to encourage its cultivation in this country. Bolton market was an important distributive centre for cotton materials n the 17th century, and in 1787 there were eleven cotton mills in the county. Parliamentary Representation.-The county of York was represented by two knights in the parliament of 1295, and the boroughs of Beverley, Hedon, Malton, Pickering, Pontefract, Ripon, Scarborough, Thirsk, Tickhill, Yarm and York each by two burgesses. Northallerton acquired representation in 1298, Boroughbridge in 1300, Kingston-on-Hull and Ravensburgh in 1304. In most of the boroughs the privilege of representation was allowed to lapse, and from 1328 until 1547 only York, Scarborough and Kingston-on-Hull returned members. Hedon, Thirsk, Ripon and Beverley regained the franchise in the 16th century, and Boroughbridge, Knaresborough, Aldborough and Richmond also returned members. Pontefract was represented in 1623, New Malton and Northallerton in 1640. In 1826 two additional knights were returned for the shire of York, and 14 boroughs were represented. Under the Reform Act of 1832 the county returned 6 members in 3 divisions-2 for each riding; Aldborough, Boroughbridge and Hedon were disfranchised: Northallerton and Thirsk lost I member each; Bradford, Halifax, Leeds and Sheffield acquired representation by 2 members each, and Wakefield and Whitby by i member each. Under the act of 1868 the representation of the West Riding division was increased to 6 members in 3 divisions; Dewsbury and Middlesbrough were enfranchised, returning I member each; Leeds now returned 3 members; Knaresborough, Malton, Richmond and Ripon lost member each. Beverley was disfranchised in 1870. (For arrangements under the act of 1885 see § Administration.) Antiquities. Of ancient castles Yorkshire retains many interesting examples. The fine ruins at Knaresborough, Pickering, Pontefract, Richmond, Scarborough and Skipton are described under their respective headings. Barden Tower, picturesquely situated in upper Wharfedale, was built by Henry de Clifford (d. 1523), called the shepherd lord" from the story that he was brought up as a shepherd. He was a student of astronomy and astrology. Bolton Castle, which rises majestically above Wensleydale, was pronounced by Leland "the fairest in Richmondshire.' It is a square building with towers at the corners, erected in the reign of Richard II. by Richard Scrope, chancellor of England. It was occupied by Queen Mary while under the charge of Lord Scrope, was besieged during the civil wars, and rendered untenable in 1647. Of Bowes Castle, in the North Riding near Barnard Castle, there remains only the square keep, supposed to have been built by Alan Niger, 1st earl of See Victoria County History, Yorkshire; T. Allen, History of Richmond, in the 12th century, but the site was occupied by the the County of York (3 vols., London, 1828-31); T. Baines, YorkRomans. Cawood Castle, on the Ouse near Selby, retains its gate-shire Past and Present, including an account of the woollen trade

Descriptions are given in the articles on the respective cities and towns of the cathedral or minster at York, and of the numerous churches in that city; of the cathedral churches at Ripon and Wakefield; of the minster and the church of St Mary at Beverley; and of the fine parish churches at Bradford, Bridlington (the old priory church), Hedon, Hull, Rotherham, Selby (abbey church), Sheffield and Thirsk. In Holderness are the splendid churches of Howden and Patrington, both in the main Decorated; and the fine late Norman building at Kirkburn. A very perfect though small example of a Norman church is seen at Birkin on the Aire below Pontefract. At Nun Monkton near York is a beautiful Early English church, formerly belonging to a Benedictine nunnery. Goodmanham in the S. Wolds is the scene, in all probability, of the conversion by Paulinus of Edwin of Northumbria in 625, who was afterwards baptized at York. At Kirkdale near Kirkby Moorside in the N. Riding is a singular example of an inscribed sundial of pre-Conquest date. At Lastingham in the same district is a very fine and early Norman crypt.

YORKTOWN, a town and the county-seat of York county, Virginia, U.S.A., on the York river 10 m. from its mouth, and about 60 m. E.S.E. of Richmond. Pop. (1910) 136. It is served by the Baltimore, Chesapeake & Richmond steamship line, and about 64 m. distant is Lee Hall, a station on the Chesapeake & Ohio railway. Large deposits of marl near the town are used for the manufacture of cement. In the main street is the oldest custom-house in the United States, and the house of Thomas Nelson (1738-1789), a signer of the Declaration of Independence. In commemoration of the surrender of Lord Cornwallis in October 1781, there is a monument of Maine granite (100 ft. 6 in. high) designed by R. M. Hunt and J. Q. A. Ward; its corner-stone was laid in 1881 during the centennial celebration of the surrender, and it was completed in 1883. Yorktown was founded in 1691, as a port of entry for York county. It❘ became the county-seat in 1696, and although it never had more than about 200 houses its trade was considerable until it was ruined by the War of Independence. In that war the final victory of the Americans and their French allies took place at Yorktown.

of Yorkshire by E. Baines (2 vols., London, 1871-77); John | was obliged to return to New York to refit, and the French were Burton, Monasticon Eboracense (London, 1758-59); W. Smith, left in control of the coast. Leaving only about 4000 men to Old Yorkshire (London, 1881); G. Frank, Ryedale and North guard the forts on the Hudson, Washington set out for Virginia Yorkshire Antiquities (York, 1888); G. R. Park, Parliamentary with the remainder of his army immediately after learning of De Representation of Yorkshire (Hull, 1886); A. D. H. Leadman, Grasse's plan, and the French land forces followed. The French Proelia Eboracensia, Battles fought in Yorkshire (London, 1891); fleet transported the allied army from the head of the Chesapeake T. D. Whitaker, History of Richmondshire (London, 1823), History to the vicinity of Williamsburg, and on the 28th of September of Craven (London, 1878), History of Leeds and Elmet (2 vols., Leeds, it marched to Yorktown. Receiving, on the same day, a despatch 1816); J. Wainwright, Yorkshire; Wapentake of Strafford and from Clinton promising relief, and fearing the enemy might outTickhill, vol. i. (Sheffield, 1826); W. Grainge, Castles and Abbeys flank him, Cornwallis abandoned his outposts during the following of Yorkshire (York, 1855); J. Hunter, South Yorkshire (2 vols., night and withdrew to his inner defences, consisting of seven London, 1828-31); J. J. Sheahan and T. Whellan, History of the redoubts and six batteries connected by intrenchments, besides City of York, the Ainsty Wapentake, and the East Riding of York- batteries along the river bank. The allies, 16,000 strong, took shire (3 vols., Beverley, 1855-57); T. Langdale, Topographical possession of the abandoned posts and closed in on the town in Dictionary of Yorkshire (Northallerton, 1809); G. H. de S. N. a semicircle extending from Wormley Creek below it to about Plantagenet Harrison, History of Yorkshire (London, 1879, &c.); a mile above it, the Americans holding the right and the French see also publications of the Yorkshire Archaeological and Topo- the left. On the night of October 5th-6th the allies opened the graphical Society. first parallel about 600 yds, from the British works, and extendS.E., a distance of nearly 2 m. Six days later the second parallel ing from a deep ravine on the N.W. to the river bank on the was begun within 300 yds. of the British lines, and it was practically completed on the night of the 14th and 15th, when two British redoubts were carried by assault, one by the Americans led by G. de Deux-Ponts. In the morning of the 16th Cornwallis ordered Alexander Hamilton and one by the French led by Lieut.-Colonel Lieut.-Colonel Abercrombie to make an assault on two French batteries. He carried them and spiked eleven guns, but they were recovered and the guns were ready for service again twelve hours later. On the night of the 16th and 17th Cornwallis attempted to escape with his army to Gloucester on the opposite side of the river, but a storm ruined what little chance of success there was in this venture. In grave danger of an assault from the allies, Cornwallis offered to surrender on the 17th; two days later his whole army, consisting of 7073 officers and men, was surrendered, and American Independence was practically assured. The British loss during the siege was about 156 killed and 326 wounded; the American and French losses were 85 killed and 199 wounded.

Baffled by General Nathanael Greene in his campaign in the Carolinas, his diminished force (fewer than 1400) sadly in need of reinforcement, and persuaded that the more southern colonies could not be held until Virginia had been reduced, Lord Cornwallis marched out of Wilmington, N. Carolina, April 25th, 1781, arrived at Petersburg, Virginia, on May 20th, and there with the troops which had been under William Phillips and Benedict Arnold and with further reinforcements from New York raised, his army to more than 7000 men. Facing him in Richmond was Lafayette, whom Washington had sent earlier in the year with a small force of light infantry to check Arnold, and who had now been placed in command of all the American troops in Virginia. Cornwallis's first attempt was to prevent the union of Lafayette and General Anthony Wayne. Failing in this, he retired down the James in the hope, it is thought, of receiving further reinforcements from General Henry Clinton. Clinton, who had not approved Cornwallis's plan against Virginia, at first ordered him to send a portion of his troops to aid in the defence of New York; but as other reinforcements came to New York, and as the home government approved Cornwallis's plan, Clinton resolved to establish a permanent base in the Chesapeake and directed Cornwallis to fortify a post for the protection of the British navy. Cornwallis seized Yorktown and Gloucester early in August and immediately began to fortify While Cornwallis was marching from N. Carolina to Virginia, Washington learned that a large French fleet under Count de Grasse was to come up from the West Indies in the summer and for a brief period co-operate with the American and French armies. At a conference (May 21st) at Wethersfield, Yorktown Connecticut, with the French commanders, Washington campaign, favoured a plan for a joint attack on New York when De Grasse should arrive. An attack on the British in Virginia was, however, considered, and the minutes of the conference with some suggestions from Rochambeau having been sent to De Grasse, he announced in a letter received the 14th of August that he should sail for the Chesapeake for united action against Cornwallis. About the same time Washington learned from Lafayette that Cornwallis was fortifying Yorktown. Sir Samuel Hood with 14 ships-of-the-line arrived at the Chesapeake from the West Indies three days ahead of De Grasse, and proceeding to New York warned Admiral Thomas Graves of the danger. Graves took command of the combined fleet, 19 ships-of-the-line, and on the 31st of August sailed for the Chesapeake in the hope of preventing the union of the French fleet from Newport, under Count de Barras, with that under De Grasse. He arrived at the Chesapeake ahead of De Barras, but after an encounter with De Grasse alone (September 5th), who had 24 ships-of-the-line, he

them.

1781.

In 1862 the Confederate defences about Yorktown were besieged for a month (April 4-May 3) by the Army of the Potomac under General M'Clellan. There was no intention on the part of the Confederate commander-in-chief, Joseph Johnston, to do more than gain time by holding Yorktown and the line of the Warwick river as long as possible without serious fighting, and without imperilling the line of retreat on Richmond; and when after many delays M'Clellan was in a position to assault with full assistance from his heavy siege guns, the Confederates fell back on Williamsburg.

See T. N. Page," Old Yorktown," in Scribner's Magazine (October, 1881); H. P. Johnston, The Yorktown Campaign and the Surrender of Cornwallis (New York, 1881); A. S. Webb, The Peninsular Cam paign (New York, 1882); and J. C. Ropes, Story of the Civil War, vol. ii.

YORUBAS; YORUBALAND. The Yoruba, a group of Negro tribes, have given their name to an extensive area in West Africa, in the hinterland of Lagos. The Yoruba are of true Negro stock, in many respects typical of the race, but among them are found persons with lighter skins and features recalling the Hamitic or Semitic peoples. This arises, in all probability, from an infiltration of Berber and Arab blood through the Fula (q.v.). The Yoruba themselves have traditions ef an Oriental origin. They are divided into many tribes, among the best known being the Oyo Yoruba proper, the Egba, Jebu, Ife and Ibadan. They are sometimes called by the French Nago, and are known to the Sierra Leonis, many of whom are of Yoruba descent, as Aku. A considerable proportion of the American negroes are also said to be of Yoruba origin. For a long period the Yoruba were raided by the Dahomeyans and other coast tribes, to sell as slaves to the white traders. They are both an urban and agricultural people. Pottery, weaving, tanning, dyeing, and forging are among their industries. The houses of chiefs, often containing fifty rooms, are well built, and decorated with carvings representing symbolic devices, fabulous animals and scenes of war or the chase.

The Yoruba have considerable administrative ability. Their system of government places the power in a council of elders presided over by a chief who owes his position to a combination of the principles of heredity and election. The ruling chief must

R. E. Dennett states that the government is based on the rule of four great chiefs who respectively represent the phases of family life, namely, (1) the deified head of the family, called Orisha; (2) the

always be taken from the members of one of two families, the | states is Egba, the ruling chief of which is the alake of Abeokuta succession in many cases passing from one to the other family (see ABEOKUTA). alternately. Primogeniture is not necessarily considered. Before the introduction of letters the Yoruba are said to have employed knotted strings for recording events. Their language, which has been reduced to writing and carefully studied, has penetrated as far E. as Kano in the Hausa country. The best known dialectic varieties are those of Egba, Jebu, Ondo, Ife, Illorin and Oyo (Yoruba proper, called also Nago); but the discrepancies are slight. The most marked feature, a strong tendency towards monosyllabism-produced by phonetic decay-has given rise to the principle of intonation, required to distinguish words originally different but reduced by corruption to the condition of homophones. Besides the tones, of which there are three,-high, low and middle, Yoruba has also developed a degree of vocalic harmony, in which the vowels of the affixes are assimilated to that of the root. Inflexion, as in Bantu, is effected chiefly by prefixes; and there is a remarkable power of word-formation by the fusion of several relational elements in a single compound term. The Bible and several other books have been translated into Yoruba, which as a medium of general intercourse in West Africa ranks in importance next to Hausa and Mandingan. The Yoruba religion is that usually known as fetishism.

The valley was discovered in 1851 by a military company in pursuit of marauding Indians; regular tourist travel began in 1856. The first permanent settler in the valley was Mr J. C. Lamon, who built a cabin in the upper end of it in 1860 and planted gardens and orchards. In 1864 the valley was granted to the state of California by act of Congress on condition that it should be held as a place of public use, resort and recreation inalienable for all time, was re-ceded to the United States by California on the 3rd of March 1905, and is now included in the Yosemite National Park.

and Abroad in 1759. After his father's death in 1759, his mother had given him the direction of the family estate at Bradheld Hall; but the property was small and encumbered with debt. From 1763 to 1766 he devoted himself to farming on his mother's property. In 1765 he married a Miss Allen; but the union is said not to have been happy, though he was of domestic habits and an affectionate father. In 1767 he undertook on his own account the management of a farm in Essex. He engaged in various experiments, and embodied the results of them in A Course of Experimental Agriculture (1770). Though Young's experiments were, in general, unsuccessful, he thus acquired a solid knowledge of agriculture. He had already begun a series of journeys through England and Wales, and gave an account of his observations in books which appeared from 1768 to 1770-A Six Weeks' Tour through the Southern Counties of England and Wales, A Six Months' Tour through the North of England and the Farmer's Tour through the East of England. He says that these books contained the only extant information relative to the rental, produce and stock of England that was founded on actual examination. They were very favourably received, being translated into most European lan

In the number and height of its vertical falls and in the massive grandeur of El Capitan and Half Dome rocks Yosemite is unrivalled. But there are many other valleys of the same kind. The most noted of those in the Sierra, visited every summer by tourists, hunters and mountaineers, are the Hetch Hetchy Valley, a wonderful counterpart of Yosemite in the Tuolumne canyon; Tehipitee Valley, in the Middle Fork canyon of King's river; and the King's river Yosemite in the South Fork canyon, the latter being larger and deeper than the Merced Yosemite. All are similar in their trends, forms, sculpture and vegetation, and are plainly and harmoniously related to the ancient glaciers. The Romsdal and Naerödal of Norway and Lauterbrunnen of the Alps are well characterized glacial valleys of the Yosemite type, and in S.E. Alaska many may be observed in process of formation. See the Annual Reports (Washington, 1891 sqq.) of the Super-guages by 1792. intendent of the Park; the Guide to the Yosemite published by the California Geological Survey; John Muir, Our National Parks (Boston, 1901); and Bunnell's Discovery of the Yosemite (New York, 1893). UJ. Mu.*)

YOUGHAL (pronounced Yawl), a seaport, market town and watering-place of county Cork, Ireland, on the W. side of the Blackwater estuary, and on the Cork & Youghal branch of the Great Southern & Western railway, 26 m. E. of Cork. Pop. (1901) 5393. The collegiate church of St Mary, in the later Decorated style, was erected in the 11th century, but rebuilt in the 13th, and since that time frequently restored. It contains a beautiful monument to the 1st earl of Cork. The .college was founded by an earl of Desmond in 1464. There are still a few fragments of the Dominican friary founded in 1269. The Clock Gate (1771) is noticeable, and portions of the old walls are to be seen. Myrtle Grove was formerly the residence of Sir Walter Raleigh. He was mayor of Youghal in 1588-89, and is said to have first cultivated the potato here. The harbour is safe and commodious, but has a bar at the mouth. At the N. extremity of the harbour the river is crossed by a bridge on wooden piles. The principal exports are corn and other agricultural produce; the imports are coal, culm, timber and slate. Coarse earthenware and bricks are manufactured. Fine point-lace commanding high prices is made by the Presentation Sisters. The Blackwater is famous for salmon, and sea-fishing is important. The Strand, the modern portion of the town, has all the attributes of a seaside resort.

Youghal (Eschaill," the Yew wood ") was made a settlement of the Northmen in the 9th century, and was incorporated by King John in 1209. The Franciscan monastery, founded at Youghal by FitzGerald in 1224, was the earliest house of that order in Ireland. Sir Roger Mortimer landed at Youghal in 1317. The town was plundered by the earl of Desmond in 1579. In 1641 it was garrisoned and defended by the earl of Cork. In 1649 it declared for the parliament, and was occupied as his headquarters by Cromwell. It sent two members to parliament from 1374 till the Union, after that only one down to 1885.

YOUNG, ARTHUR (1741-1820), English writer on agriculture and social economy, second son of the Rev. Arthur Young, rector of Bradfield, in Suffolk, chaplain to Speaker Onslow, was born on the 11th of September 1741. After being at a school at Lavenham, he was in 1758 placed in a mercantile house at Lynn, but showed no taste for commercial pursuits. He published, when only seventeen, a pamphlet On the War in North America, and in 1761 went to London and started a periodical work, entitled The Univers Museum, which was dropped by the advice of Samuel Johnson. He also wrote four novels, and Reflections on the Present State of Affairs at Home

In 1768 he published the Farmer's Letters to the People of England, in 1771 the Farmer's Calendar, which went through a great number of editions, and in 1774 his Political Arithmetic, which was widely translated. About this time Young acted as parliamentary reporter for the Morning Post. He made a tour in Ireland in 1776, publishing his Tour in Ireland in 1780. In 1784 he began the publication of the Annals of Agriculture, which was continued for 45 volumes: this work had many contributors, among whom was George III., writing under the nom de plume of "Ralph Robinson." Young's first visit to France was made in 1787. Traversing that country in every direction just before and during the first movements of the Revolution, he has given valuable notices of the condition of the people and the conduct of public affairs at that critical juncture. The Travels in France appeared in 2 vols. in 1792. On his return home he was appointed secretary of the Board of Agriculture, then (1793) just formed under the presidency of Sir John Sinclair. In this capacity he gave most valuable assistance in the collection and preparation of agricultural surveys of the English counties. His sight, however, failed, and in 1811 he had an operation for cataract, which proved unsuccessful. He suffered also in his last years from stone. He died on the 20th of April 1820. He left an autobiography in MS., which was edited (1898) by Miss M. Betham-Edwards, and is the main authority for his life; and also the materials for a great work on the “Elements and practice of agriculture."

Arthur Young was the greatest of all English writers on agriculture; but it is as a social and political observer that he is best known, and his Tour in Ireland and Travels in France are still full of interest and instruction. He saw clearly and exposed unsparingly the causes which retarded the progress of Ireland. He strongly urged the repeal of the penal laws which pressed upon the Catholics; he condemned the restrictions imposed by Great Britain on the commerce of Ireland, and also the perpetual interference of the Irish parliament with industry by prohibitions and bounties. He favoured a legislative union of Ireland with Great Britain, though he did not regard such a measure as absolutely necessary, many of its advantages being otherwise attainable.

The soil of France he found in general superior to that of England, and its produce less. Agriculture was neither as well understood nor as much esteemed as in England. He severely censured the alone will force the French nobility to execute what the English do "Banishment (from court) higher classes for their neglect of it. for pleasure-reside upon and adorn their estates." Young saw the commencement of violence in the rural districts, and his sympathies began to take the side of the classes suffering from the excesses of the Revolution. This change of attitude was shown by his publication in 1793 of a tract entitled The Example of France a Warning to England. Of the profounder significance of the French outbreak he seems to have had little idea, and thought the crisis would be met by a constitutional adjustment in accordance with the English type. He strongly condemned the mélayer system, then widely prevalent in France, as "perpetuating poverty and excluding instruction "-as, in fact, the ruin of the country. Some of his phrases have been often quoted by the advocates of peasant