eastward the "America" went inside the Nab, a course which was contrary to the printed programme, but an objection afterwards made on this score against her was not persisted in. Off Sandown Bay the "America obtained a long lead and in a freshening wind carried away her jibboom. Here the "Aurora" was second boat. The "Volante" sprung her bowsprit and gave up. The "Arrow ran ashore and the "Alarm" went to her assistance, so both were out of the race. Abreast of Ventnor the American schooner was a mile ahead of " Aurora," which was the last British craft to keep her in sight in a thick haze that blew up from the S.W. late in the afternoon. At the Needles the wind dropped until it was very light, and the America "was then some 6 m. ahead of "Aurora," the time being about 6 p.m. The finish was:

The "America" was built at New York by the firm of George & James R. Steers for the special purpose of competing with British yachts at Cowes. George Steers, who was born in New York, designed her, the designer being a son of Henry Steers, a shipwright at Dartmouth. The registered owners of the vessel were Mr J. C. Stevens, the commodore of the New YorkYacht Club, Mr C.A.Stevens, Mr H. Wilkes and Mr J. B. Finlay. Her crew consisted of thirteen all told, seven seamen before the mast, two mates, cook, steward, boy and master. The cost of building was set down at £24 per ton, and her builder was to receive one-third more should she succeed "in out-sailing any competitors of the same tonnage in England." The vessel had a long lean hollow entrance and rather short but fine run, but her lines were graceful and clean and the transverse sections amidships very gentle and shapely. She had a clipper bow and elliptical stern. Her sails particularly were superior in cut to those of the English vessels. Her masts raked, and she carried a mainsail laced to the boom, which in those days was almost unknown in England, a foresail, and a jib, also set on a boom and on an immensely heavy forestay which was the chief support of the foremast. She carried a small main topsail with a short yard and small jackyard. Occasionally she set also a flying jib on a jibboom, but this was not regarded as of much account. The principal dimensions of the "America were: tonnage 171; length over all 94 ft.; on the keel 82 ft.; beam 22 ft. 6 in.; foremast 79 ft. 6 in.; mainmast 81 ft. (with a rake of 21 in. to the foot in each mast); hollow bowsprit 17 ft. out board only; foregaff 24 ft.; maingaff 28 ft.; mainboom 56 ft. She was ballasted with pig-iron; 21 tons of the iron were permanently built into the vessel and the rest stowed inside. Below deck she was comfortably fitted for the living accommodation of the owner, guests and crew, and a cockpit on deck was a feature that few English yachts of the period possessed.

The cup won at Cowes by the "America," although not originally intended as a challenge cup, was afterwards given to the New York Yacht Club by the owner of the "America as a challenge trophy and named the "America's cup." In 1887 the sole surviving owner of the cup, George L. S. Schuyler, attached to the trophy a deed of gift which sets forth the conditions under which all races for the cup must take place. In brief the conditions are: (1) That the races must be between one yacht built in the country of the challenging club and one yacht built in the country of the club holding the cup. (2) That the size of the yachts, if of one mast, must be not less than 65 ft. L.W.L. and not more than 90 ft. L.W.L. If of two-masted rig not less than 80 ft. L.W.L. and not more than 115 ft. L.W.L. (3) The challenging club must give ten months' notice of the race, and accompanying the challenge must be sent the name, rig and the following dimensions: length L.W.L.; beam and draught of water of the challenging vessel (which dimensions shall not be exceeded), and as soon as possible a custom-house registry of the Vessel. (4) The vessel must proceed under sail on her own bottom to the place where the contest is to take place.

The deed of gift, however, is an elastic document, for it contains the following clause which is known as the Mutual Agreement Clause: "The club challenging for the cup and the club holding the same may by mutual consent make any arrangement satisfactory to both as to the dates, courses, number of trials, rules and sailing regulations, and any and all other conditions of the match, in which case also the ten months' notice may be waived."

"

In 1870 Mr James Ashbury of Brighton challenged with the schooner " Cambria," and in 1871 with another schooner the "Livonia." In both cases the event was a test of rival types, Cambria and "Livonia" being old-fashioned British schooners while the vessels they met were the pick of the American broader and shallower types. "Cambria" had to meet fourteen opponents, but in 1871 the Livonia" raced against one opponent only. The Americans, however, although they agreed to race one vessel only against the "Livonia," brought several yachts up to the line and only selected their defender at the last moment. The first defender which "Livonia" had to meet was the "Columbia," which won the first and second events. In the third meeting, however, in a very strong wind the British schooner hammered the "Columbia severely, and eventually the American yacht, having carried away some gear, was beaten by a quarter of an hour. In the two remaining races of the series the Americans were represented by the "Sappho," which easily defeated the "Livonia."

"

The next challenges came from Canada in 1876 and 1881, but neither the schooner Countess of Dufferin nor the sloop “Atalanta met with any success.

The races of 1885 and 1886, when Sir Richard Sutton challenged with "Genesta" and Lieutenant Henn, R.N., with "Galatea," were interesting chiefly because they were of the nature of trials between the heavy plank-on-edge type of cutter and the prevailing American type of broad light-draught sloop. The contests proved the superiority of the American sloops.

In 1886 the plank-on-edge type was abandoned in England, and when the Scottish yacht "Thistle was built in 1887 to challenge for the cup it was hoped that she would meet with success. Thistle," however, although of greater beam and proportionately lighter displacement than such vessels as "Genesta "and" Galatea,' was quite easily defeated by the centre-board sloop Volunteer." Thus once again did the lighter American type prevail even against the modified form of the "Thistle."

In

The race between the "Thistle" and "Volunteer" of 1887 may be said to have been the last race for the cup wherein there was any marked difference between the type of the boats contesting. In all subsequent races the form of the challenger and defender became approximately similar, but while the types were gradually converging the American yachts were still usually somewhat lighter in displacement than the challengers. The "Thistle" was the first vessel built in Great Britain expressly for the match, and after her race in 1887 the types in fashion on both sides of the Atlantic rapidly converged, and deep-draught fin-keeled vessels with deep fins and light shallow hulls took the place of the former types of the shallow American sloops and deep-keeled wall-sided British cutters. 1892 some splendid semi-fin-keeled cutters of the new pattern were built in the 40-rating class for the ordinary English coast regattas, and in 1893 the fin-keel type in England was even more successful. The first class cutters Britannia, "Valkyrie II.," "Satania" and "Calluna," built in 1893, handsomely defeated a Herreshoff yacht, the "Navahoe," which went over from America to race against them. On the strength of the victories of "Valkyrie II." and "Britannia" many British yachtsmen anticipated success for Lord Dunraven when he raced for the America's cup with his cutter "Valkyrie II." in the autumn of 1893. The Americans, however, had built a fine fleet of defenders," Colonia," "Pilgrim," Jubilee and "Vigilant," and the latter beat "Valkyrie II." In the follow ing season the "Vigilant " crossed the Atlantic and raced in British waters in 1894 against the " Britannia," and was frequently beaten. G. L. Watson, who had designed "Thistle" and Valkyrie II." as well as "Britannia," was commissioned by Lord Dunraven to design "Valkyrie III." specially for an America's cup race in 1895. "Valkyrie III." was a very extreme fin-keeled boat, and for the first time the challenger appeared to have outbuilt the defending designer. "Valkyrie III." carried 13,027 sq. ft. of sail to the American "Defender's" 12,602. It was said that the Watson boat actually had less displacement. Both were 90 ft. L.W.L., " Valkyrie III." being 129 ft. over all against " Defender's " 123. and "Valkyrie III." 26.2 ft. beam against "Defender's 23-03 ft. The races were unsatisfactory. In the first race Lord Dunraven claimed that "Valkyrie III." was hampered by the wash of steamers following the race, and his yacht was 8 m. 49 sec. astern. In the second race "Valkyrie " beat" Defender" by 49 seconds on the corrected time and actually by I m. 14 sec., but there was a foul at the start in which "Defender was partially disabled: On protest the English yacht was disqualified, so that both events counted to " Defender." In the third race Lord Dunraven objected that ballast had been added to the American yacht since measurement, and the “ Valkyrie III." merely crossed the line and retired, giving the " Defender the match.

In 1899, 1901 and 1903 Sir Thomas Lipton tried to win the cup

with three very costly and extreme vessels, "Shamrock I.," "Shamrock II." and "Shamrock III." No. 1. and No. III. were designed by W. Fife, and No. II. by G. L. Watson. In 1899 "Shamrock I." was rather easily defeated by "Columbia." In 1901 the Americans were not especially successful in building the vessel which they had prepared to defend the cup, and in the trial races the old 1899 yacht" Columbia," sailed by Captain Charles Barr-a half-brother of the skipper of the Scottish yacht" Thistle " -defeated the new vessel "Constitution," which had been built for the defence of the trophy for 1901; consequently the New York Yacht Club again selected the Columbia to defend the cup against "Shamrock II." After very close racing the "Columbia —which was the better handled boat-retained the prize.

The next contest for the cup was in 1903. On this occasion Herreshoff turned out in "Reliance "a wonderful example of a large fin-keeled boat with full pram-bow and light skimming-dish hull. She was of the lightest possible construction (bronze with steel web frames), 90 ft. length L.W.L., 144 ft. length over all, with 16,160 sq. ft. of sail area, 25 ft. 10 in. beam, and a draught of 19 ft. 9 in. "Reliance" was a far more extreme vessel than "Shamrock III." The latter had a deeper body and a less prammed overhang forward. With the same water-line as "Reliance," the English yacht had rather over a foot less beam. The chief difference in dimensions, however, was in the sail area: "Shamrock III." carried 14.337 sq. ft., or 1823 sq. ft. less than "Reliance." result was a very easy victory for the "Reliance."

The

Verkhovansk on the Yana (67° 34' N. and 134° 20′ E.), frosts of 79.5° F. have been observed, and the average temperature of the three winter months is -53.1°; even that of March only is little above the freezing-point of mercury (-37.9°). Neither Ust-Yansk (70° 55' N., but close to the sea coast) nor Yakutsk, nor even the polar station of Sagastyr at the mouth of the Lena (73° 23′ N.), has a winter so cold and so protracted. And yet at Sagastyr temperatures of -63-6° have been observed, and the average temperature of February is only -43.6°. At Yakutsk the average temperature of the winter is -40-2, and the soil is frozen to a depth of 600 ft. (Middendorff). The Lena, both at Kirensk and at Yakutsk, is free from ice for only 161 days in the year, the Yana at Ust-Yansk for 105. At Yakutsk only 145 days and at Verkhoyansk only 73 have no snow; the interval between the latest frosts of one season and the earliest frosts of the next is barely 37 days.

The bulk of the inhabitants are Yakuts; there are some 20,000 Russians, many of them exiles, and a certain number of Tunguses, Tatars, Lamuts and Chukchis. The estimated pop. in 1906 was 300,600. The Yakuts belong to the Turkish stock, and speak a dialect of Turkish, with an admixture of Mongolian words. They call themselves Sokha or Sakhov (pl. Sokhalar or Sakhalov), their present name having been borrowed by the Russians from the Tunguses, who call them Yeko or Yekot. Most probably they once inhabited S. Siberia, especially the upper Yenisei, where a Tatar tribe calling itself Sakha still survives in Minusinsk. They are middle-sized, have dark and rather narrow eyes, a broad flat nose, thick black hair and little beard. They are very laborious and enterprising, and display in schools much more intelligence than the Tunguses or Buryats. Their implements show a great degree of skill and some artistic taste. They live in log yurtas or huts, with small windows, into which plates of ice or pieces of skin are inserted instead of glass. During summer they abandon their wooden dwellings and encamp in conical tents of birch bark. Their food is chiefly flesh, and they drink kumiss, or mares' milk. Though nearly all are nominally Christians, they retain much of their original Shamanism. Their settlements are now steadily advancing S. into the hunting domains of the Tunguses, who give way before their superior civilization.

The province is divided into five districts, the chief towns of which are Yakutsk, Olekminsk, Sredne-Kolymsk, Verkhoyansk and Viluisk. Though the production of gold from gold washings has been on the decrease, over 15,000 workers are employed in the Olekma and Vitim gold-mines. Only 43,000 acres are under crops, chiefly barley. Most of the inhabitants are engaged in live-stock breeding, and keep reindeer and sledge-dogs. Fish is an important article of food, especially in the Kolyma region. In the N. hunting is important, the skins taken being principally those of squirrels, ermines, hares, foxes, Arctic foxes, and a few sables, beavers and bears. The principal channel of communication is the Lena. As soon as the spring arrives, scores of boats are built at Kachungsk, Verkholensk and Ust-Ilginsk, and the goods brought on sledges in winter from the capital of Siberia, including considerable amounts of corn and salt meat, are shipped down the river. A few steamers descend to the delta of the Lena, and return with cargoes of fish and furs. Cattle are brought from Transbaikalia. Two routes, mere horse-tracks, radiate from Yakutsk to Ayan and to Okhotsk. Manufactured goods and groceries are imported to Yakutsk by the former.

See F. Thiess, Das Gouvernement Jakutsk in Ostsibirien, in Petermann's Mitteilungen (1897), and Maydell, Reisen und Forschungen im Jakutskischen Gebiet in Ostsibirien (St Petersburg, 2 vols., 18951896). (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.)

YAKUTSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, capital of the province of the same name, in 62° 2′ N. and 129° 44′ E., 1165 m. N.E. of Irkutsk, on a branch of the Lena. Pop. about 7000. The old fort is destroyed, except its five wooden towers. The wooden houses are built upon high basements to protect them from the floods. Yakutsk possesses a theological seminary and a cathedral. Its merchants carry on trade in furs, mammoth ivory and reindeer hides. The town was founded in 1632.

YALE UNIVERSITY, the third oldest university in the United States, at New Haven, Connecticut./

The founders of the New Haven colony, like those of Massachusetts Bay, cherished the establishment of a college as an essential part of their ideal of a Christian state, of which education and religion should be the basis and the chief fruits. New Haven since 1644 had contributed annually to the support of Harvard College, but the distance of the Cambridge school from southern New England seemed in those days considerable; and a separate educational establishment was also called for by a divergent development in politics and theology. Yale was founded by ministers selected by the churches of the colony, as President Thomas Clap said, to the end that they might "educate ministers in our own way." Though "College land" was set apart in 1647, Yale College had its actual beginning in 1700 when a few clergymen met in the New Haven with the purpose stand as trustees or undertakers to found, erect and govern the College" for which at various times, donations of books and money had been made. The formal establishment was in 1701. The Connecticut legislature in October granted a charter which seems to have been partly drafted by Judge Samuel Sewall of Boston; the Mather family also were among those in Boston who welcomed and laboured for the establishment of a seminary of a stricter theology than Harvard, and the ten clergymen who were the founders and first trustees of the College were graduates of Harvard.

to

The legislature, fearful of provoking in England attention either to the new school or to the powers used in chartering it, assumed merely to license a "collegiate school," and made its powers of conferring degrees as unobtrusive as possible. In 1702 the teaching of Yale began. In the early years the upper students studied where the rector lived, and considerable groups of the lower students were drawn off by their tutors to different towns. In 1716 the trustees purchased a lot in New Haven, and in the next year the College was established there by the legislature. Commencement was held at New Haven in the same year, but the last of the several student bodies did not disband until 1719. The school did not gain a name until the completion of the first building in 1718. This had been made possible by a gift from Elihu Yale (1649-1721), a native of Boston and son of one of the original settlers of New Haven; he had amassed great wealth in India, where he was governor of the East India Company's settlement at Madras. The trustees accordingly named it Yale College in his honour.

The charter of 1701 stated that the end of the school was the instruction of youth "in the arts and sciences," that they might be fitted "for public employment, both in church and civil state." To the clergy, however, who controlled the College, theology was the basis, security and test of "arts and sciences." In 1722 the rector, Timothy Cutler, was dismissed because of a leaning toward Episcopacy. Various special tests were employed to preserve the doctrinal purity of Calvinism among the instructors; that of the students was carefully looked after. In 1753 a stringent test was fixed by the Corporation to ensure the orthodoxy of the teachers. This was abolished in 1778. From 1808 to 1818 the President and tutors were obliged to signify' assent to a general formulation of orthodox belief. When George Whitefield, in 1740, initiated by his preaching the Great Awakening," a local schism resulted in Connecticut between "Old Lights " and "New Lights." When the College set up an independent church the Old Lights made the contention that the College did not owe its foundation to the original trustees, but to the first charter granted by the legislature, which might therefore control the College. This claim President Clap triumphantly controverted (1763), but Yale fell in consequence under popular distrust, and her growth was delayed by the shutting off of financial aid from the legislature.

By the first charter (1701) the trustees of the College were required to be ministers (for a long time, practically,

In 1668 the Hopkins Grammar School, next after the Boston Latin School the oldest educational institution of this grade in the United States, was established in New Haven.

This number was increased to eleven, the full number allowed by the charter, within a month after it was granted.