is the goal he marks out for attainment. Whether views so large, so sane and so wholesome, are to be placed to the credit of the German poet, or of his French source (and modern criticism is leaning more and more to a belief in the existence of Kiot), the Parzival is the work of a remarkable personality, and, given the age and the environment, a unique literary achievement. Wolfram has moments of the highest poetical inspiration, but his meaning, even for his compatriots, is often obscure. He is in no sense a master of language, as was Gottfried von Strassbourg. This latter, in a very interesting passage of the Tristan, passes in review the poets of the day, awarding to the majority praise for the excellence of their style, but one he does not name, only blaming him as being so obscure and involved that none can tell what his meaning may be; this un-named poet has always been understood to be Wolfram von Eschenbach, and in a passage of Willchalm the author refers to the unfavourable criticisms passed on Parzival. Wolfram and Gottfried were both true poets, but of widely differing style. Wolfram was, above all, a man of deeply religious character (witness his introduction to Willehalm), and it seems to have been this which specially impressed the mind of his compatriots; in the 13thcentury poem of Der Wartburg-Krieg it is Wolfram who is chosen as the representative of Christianity, to oppose the enchanter Klingsor von Ungerland. (J. L. W.) WOLGAST, a seaport town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Pomerania, situated on the river Peene, which separates it from the island of Usedom, 30 m. by rail E. of Greifswald. Pop. (1905) 8346. There are various manufactures. Wolgast became a town in 1247, and after being the residence of the duke of Pomerania-Wolgast, it was ceded to Sweden in 1648. It was captured four times during the Thirty Years' War, and in 1675 by Frederick William, elector of Brandenburg. It was restored to Germany in 1815.

See B. Heberlein, Beiträge zur Geschichte der Burg und Stadt Wolgast (Wolgast, 1892).

WOLLASTON, WILLIAM (1659-1724), English philosophical writer, was born at Coton-Clanford in Staffordshire, on the 26th of March 1659. On leaving Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, in 1681, he became an assistant master at the Birmingham grammarschool, and took holy orders. In 1688 an uncle left him a fortune. He then moved to London, married a lady of wealth, and devoted himself to learning and philosophy. He embodied his views in the one book by which he is remembered, The Religion of Nature Delineated (1st ed. 1722; 2nd ed. 1724). He died in October

1724.

Wollaston's Religion of Nature, which falls between Clarke's Discourse of the Unchangeable Obligations of Natural Religion and Butler's Sermons, was one of the popular philosophical books of its day. To the 8th edition (1750) was added a life of the author. The book was designed to be an answer to two questions: Is there such a thing as natural religion? and, If there is, what is it? Wollaston starts with the assumption that religion and morality are identical, and labours to show that religion is the pursuit of happiness by the practice of truth and reason." He claims originality for his theory that the moral evil is the practical denial of a true proposition and moral good the affirmation of it (see ETHICS). Wollaston also published anonymously a small book, On the Design of the Book of Ecclesiastes, or the Unreasonableness of Men's Restless Conention for the Present Enjoyments, represented in an English Poem (London, 1691). See John Clarke, Examination of the Notion of Moral Good and Evil advanced in a late book entitled The Religion of Nature Delineated (London, 1725); Drechsler, Über Wollaston's Moral-Philosophie (Erlangen, 1802); Sir Leslie Stephen's History of English Thought in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1876), ch. iii. and ch. ix.; H. Sidgwick's History of Ethics (1902), pp. 198 sq.

WOLLASTON, WILLIAM HYDE (1766-1828), English chemist

and natural philosopher, was born at East Dereham, Norfolk, on the 6th of April 1766, the second of seventeen children. His father, the Rev. Francis Wollaston (1731-1815), rector of Chislehurst, grandson of the William Wollaston noticed above, was an enthusiastic astronomer. Wollaston was educated at Charterhouse, and afterwards at Caius College, Cambridge, of which he became a fellow. He took the degrees of M.B. (1787) and M.D. (1793), starting to practise medicine in 1789 at Bury St Edmunds, whence he soon removed to London. But he made

little way, and failed to obtain a vacant physicianship at St George's hospital; the result was that he abandoned medicine and took to original research. He devoted much attention to the affairs of the Royal Society, of which he was elected a fellow in 1793 and made secretary in 1806. He was elected interim president in June 1820, on the death of Sir Joseph Banks; but he did not care to enter into competition with Sir Humphry Davy, and the latter was elected president at the anniversary meeting in November 1820. Wollaston became a member of the Geological Society of London in 1812, and served frequently on the Council and for some time as a vice-president. Beyond appearing at the meetings of learned societies he took little part in public affairs; he lived alone, conducting his investigations in a deliberate and exhaustive manner, but in the most rigid seclusion, no person being admitted to his laboratory on any pretext. Towards the close of 1828 he felt the approach of a fatal malady-a tumour in the brain-and devoted his last days to a careful revisal of his unpublished researches and industrial processes, dictating several papers on these subjects, which were afterwards published in the Philosophical Transactions. He died in London on the 22nd of December 1828.

In

Most of Wollaston's original work' deals more or less directly with chemical subjects, but diverges on all sides into optics, acoustics, mineralogy, astronomy, physiology, botany and even art. chemistry he made a speciality of the platinum metals. Platinum itself he discovered how to work on a practical scale, and he is said to have made a fortune from the secret, which, however, he disclosed in a posthumous paper (1829); and he was the first to detect the metals palladium (1804) and rhodium (1805) in crude platinum. In regard to palladium his conduct was open to criticism. He anonymously offered a quantity of the metal for sale at an instru ment-maker's shop, issuing an advertisement in which some of its main properties were described. Richard Chevenix (1774-1830), a periment that it was not a simple body as claimed, but an alloy of chemist, having bought some of the substance, decided after exmercury with platinum, and in 1803 presented a paper to the Royal Society setting forth this view. As secretary, Wollaston saw this paper when it was sent in, and is said to have tried to persuade the and also a second by Chevenix of the same tenor in 1805, to be read author to withdraw it. But having failed, he allowed the paper, without avowing that it was he himself who had originally detected the metal, although he had an excellent opportunity of stating the fact in 1804 when he discussed the substance in the paper which announced the discovery of rhodium. In 1809 he proved the ele mentary character of columbium (niobium) and titanium. optics he was the first, in 1802, to observe the dark lines in the solar spectrum. Of the seven lines he saw, he regarded the five most prominent as the natural boundaries or dividing lines of the pure simple colours of the prismatic spectrum, which he supposed to have four primary divisions. He described the reflecting goniometer in 1809 and the camera lucida in 1812, provided microscopists with the Wollaston doublet," and applied concavo-convex lenses to the purposes of the oculist. His cryophorus was described in 1813, in a paper "On a method of freezing at a distance." In 1821, after H. C. Oersted (1777-1851) had shown that a magnetic needle is deflected by an electric current, he attempted, in the laboratory of the Royal Institution in the presence of Humphry Davy, to convert that deflection into a continuous rotation, and also to obtain the reciprocal effect of a current rotating round a magnet. He failed in both respects, and when Michael Faraday, who overheard a portion of his conversation with Davy on the subject, was subsequently more successful, he was inclined to assert the merit of priority, to which Faraday did not admit his claim. Among his other papers may be mentioned those dealing with the formation of fairy rings (1807), a synoptic scale of chemical equivalents (1814), sounds inaudible to ordinary cars (1820), the physiology of vision (1824), the apparent direction of the eyes in a portrait (1824) and the comparison of the light of the sun with that of the moon and fixed stars (1829). In geological circles Wollaston is famous for the medal which bears his name, and which (together with a donation fund) is annually awarded by the council of the Geological Society of London, being the result of the interest on £1000 bequeathed by Wollaston for "promoting researches concerning the mineral structure of the earth." The first award was made in 1831. The medal is the highest honour bestowed by the society: it was originally made of palladium, but is now made of gold.

"

An appreciative essay on Wollaston will be found in George Wilson's Religio Chemicí (1862).

WOLLASTONITE, a rock-forming mineral consisting of calcium metasilicate, CaSiO3, crystallizing in the monoclinic system and belonging to the pyroxene (q.v.) group. It differs, however, from other members of this group in having cleavages, not parallel to the prism-faces, but in two directions perpendicular to the

Foot at Aldershot, he went with it again, in March 1857, to join the expedition to China under Major-General the Hon. T. Ashburnham. Wolseley embarked in command of three companies in the transport "Transit," which was wrecked in the Strait of Banka. The troops were all saved, but with only their arms and a few rounds of ammunition, and were taken to Singapore, whence, on account of the Indian Mutiny, they were despatched with all haste to Calcutta. Wolseley distinguished himself at the relief of Lucknow under Sir Colin Campbell in November, and in the defence of the Alambagh position under Outram, taking part in the actions of the 22nd of December 1857, the 12th and 16th of January 1858, and the repulse of the grand attack of the 21st of February. In March he served at the final siege and capture of Lucknow. He was then appointed deputyassistant quartermaster-general on the staff of Sir Hope Grant's Oudh division, and was engaged in all the operations of the campaign, including the actions of Bari, Sarsi, Nawabganj, the capture of Faizabad, the passage of the Gumti and the action of Sultanpur. In the autumn and winter of 1858 he took part in the Baiswara, trans-Gogra and trans-Rapti campaigns, ending with the complete suppression of the rebellion. For his services he was frequently mentioned in despatches, and, having received his Crimean majority in March 1858, was in April 1859 promoted to be lieutenant-colonel, and received the Mutiny medal and clasp. Wolseley continued to serve on Sir Hope Grant's staff in Oudh, and when Grant was nominated to the command of the British troops in the Anglo-French expedition to China in 1860, accompanied him as deputy-assistant quartermaster-general. He was present at the action at Sin-ho, the capture of Tang-ku, the storming of the Taku Forts, the occupation of Tientsin, the battle of Pa-le-cheau and the entry into Peking. He assisted in the re-embarkation of the troops before the winter set in. He was mentioned in despatches, and for his services received the medal and two clasps. On his return home he published the Narrative of the War with China in 1860.

In November 1861 Wolseley was one of the special service officers sent to Canada to make arrangements for the reception of troops in case of war with the United States in connexion with the mail steamer "Trent" incident, and when the matter was amicably settled he remained on the headquarters staff in Canada as assistant quartermaster-general. In 1865 he became a brevet colonel, was actively employed the following year in connexion with the Fenian raids from the United States, and in 1867 was appointed deputy quartermaster-general in Canada. In 1869 his Soldiers' Pocket Book for Field Service was published, and has since run through many editions. In 1870 he successfully commanded the Red river expedition to put down a rising under Louis Riel at Fort Garry, now the city of Winnipeg, the capital of Manitoba, then an outpost in the Wilderness, which could only be reached through a network of rivers and lakes extending for 600 m. from Lake Superior, traversed only by Indians, and where no supplies were obtainable. The admirable arrangements made and the careful organization of the transport reflected great credit on the commander, who on his return home was made K.C.M.G. and C.B.

Appointed assistant adjutant-general at the war office in 1871 he worked hard in furthering the Cardwell schemes of army reform, was a member of the localization committee, and a keen advocate of short service, territorial regiments and linked battalions. From this time till he became commander-inchief Wolseley was the prime mover and the deciding influence in practically all the steps taken at the war office for promoting the efficiency of the army under the altered conditions of the day. In 1873 he commanded the expedition to Ashanti, and, having made all his arrangements at the Gold Coast before the arrival of the white troops in January 1874, was able to complete the campaign in two months, and re-embark them for home before the unhealthy season began. This was the campaign which made his name a household word in England. He fought the battle of Amoaful on the 31st of January, and, after five days' fighting, ending with the battle of Ordahsu, entered Kumasi, which he burned. He received the thanks of both Houses of

Parliament and a grant of £25,000, was promoted to be major general for distinguished service in the field, received the medal and clasp and was made G.C.M.G. and K.C.B. The freedom of the city of London was conferred upon him with a sword of honour, and he was made honorary D.C.L. of Oxford and LL.D. of Cambridge universities. On his return home he was appointed inspector-general of auxiliary forces, but had not held the post for a year when, in consequence of the native unrest in Natal, he was sent to that colony as governor and general commanding. In November 1876 he accepted a seat on the council of India, from which in 1878, having been promoted lieutenant-general, he went as high-commissioner to the newly acquired possession of Cyprus, and in the following year to South Africa to supersede Lord Chelmsford in command of the forces in the Zulu War, and as governor of Natal and the Transvaal and high commissioner of South-East Africa. But on his arrival at Durban in July he found that the war in Zululand was practically over, and after effecting a temporary settlement he went to the Transvaal. Having reorganized the administration there and reduced the powerful chief Sikukuni to submission, he returned home in May 1880 and was appointed quartermaster-general to the forces. For his services in South Africa he received the Zulu medal with clasp, and was made G.C.B.

In 1882 he was appointed adjutant-general to the forces,' and in August of that year was given the command of the British forces in Egypt to suppress the rebellion of Arabi Pasha (see EGYPT: Military Operations). Having seized the Suez Canal, he disembarked his troops at Ismailia, and after a very short and brilliant campaign completely defeated Arabi Pasha at Tel-el-Kebir, and suppressed the rebellion. For his services he received the thanks of parliament, the medal with clasp, the bronze star, was promoted general for distinguished service in the field, raised to the peerage as Baron Wolseley of Cairo and Wolseley, and received from the Khedive the 1st class of the order of the Osmanieh. In 1884 he was again called away from his duties as adjutant-general to command the Nile expedition for the relief of General Gordon and the besieged garrison of Khartum. The expedition arrived too late: Khartum had fallen, and Gordon was dead; and in the spring of 1885 complications with Russia over the Penjdeh incident occurred, and the withdrawal of the expedition followed. For his services he received two clasps to his Egyptian medal, the thanks of parliament, and was created a viscount and a knight of St Patrick. He continued at the war office as adjutant-general to the forces until 1890, when he was given the command in Ireland. He was promoted to be field marshal in 1894, and was nominated colonel of the Royal Horse Guards in 1895, in which year he was appointed by the Unionist government to succeed the duke of Cambridge as commander-in-chief of the forces. This was the position to which his great experience in the field and his previous signal success at the war office itself had fully entitled him. His powers were, however, limited by a new order in council, and after holding the appointment for over five years, he handed over the command-in-chief to Earl Roberts at the commencement of 1901. The fact that the unexpectedly large force required for South Africa was mainly furnished by means of the system of reserves which Lord Wolseley had originated was in itself a high tribute to his foresight and sagacity; but the new conditions at the war office had never been to his liking, and on being released from responsibility he brought the whole subject before the House of Lords in a speech which resulted in some remarkable disclosures.

Lord Wolseley had been appointed colonel-in-chief of the Royal Irish Regiment in 1898, and in 1901 was made goldstick in waiting. He married in 1867 Louisa, daughter of Mr A. Erskine, his only child, Frances, being heiress to the viscountcy under special remainder. A frequent contributor to periodicals, he also published The Decline and Fall of Napoleon (1895), The Life of John Churchill, Duke of Marlborough, to the Accession of Queen Anne (1894), and The Story of a Soldier's Life (1903), giving in the last-named work an account of his career down to the close of the Ashanti War.

conferred on him by papal bull in September, and the cardinalate which he had sent Polydore Vergil to beg from Leo X. in May 1514, but did not receive till the following year. Nevertheless, when Francis I. in 1515 succeeded Louis XII. and won the

Thomas was educated at Magdalen College, Oxford; but the details of his university career are doubtful owing to the defectiveness of the university and college registers. He is said to have graduated B.A. at the age of fifteen (i.e. about 1490); but his earliest definite appearance in the records is as junior bursar of Magdalen College in 1498-1499, and senior bursar in 14991500, an office he was compelled to resign for applying funds to the completion of the great tower without sufficient authority (W. D. Macray, Reg. of Magdalen College, i. 29-30, 133-134). He must have been elected fellow of Magdalen some years before; and as master of Magdalen College school he had under his charge three sons of Thomas Grey, first marquess of Dorset. Dorset's beneficent intentions for his sons' pedagogue probably suggested Wolsey's ordination as priest at Marlborough on March 10, 1498, and on October 10, 1500, he was instituted, on Dorset's presentation, to the rectory of Limington in Somerset. His connexion with Magdalen had perhaps terminated with his resignation of the bursarship, though he supplicated for the degrees of B.D. and D.D. in 1510; and the college appears to have derived no advantage from Wolsey's subsequent greatness. At Limington he came into conflict with law and order as represented by the sheriff, Sir Amias Paulet, who is said by Cavendish to have placed Wolsey in the stocks; Wolsey retaliated long afterwards by. confining Paulet to his chambers in the Temple for five or six years. Dorset died in 1501, but Wolsey found other patrons in his pursuit of wealth and fame. Before the end of that year he obtained from the pope a dispensation to hold two livings in conjunction with Limington, and Archbishop Deane of Canterbury also appointed him his domestic chaplain. Deane, however, died in 1503, and Wolsey became chaplain to Sir Richard Nanfan, deputy of Calais, who apparently recommended him to Henry VII. Nanfan died in 1507, but the king made Wolsey his chaplain and employed him in diplomatic work. In 1508 he was sent to James IV. of Scotland, and in the same year he pleased Henry by the extraordinary expedition with which he crossed and recrossed the Channel on an errand connected with the king's proposal of marriage to Margaret of Savoy. His ecclesiastical preferments, of which he received several in 1506-1509, culminated in his appointment by Henry to the deanery of Lincoln on February 2, 1509.

Henry VIII. made Wolsey his almoner immediately on his accession, and the receipt of some half-dozen further ecclesiastical preferments in the first two years of the reign marks his growth in royal favour. But it was not till towards the end of 1511 that Wolsey became a privy councillor and secured a controlling voice in the government. His influence then made itself felt on English policy. The young king took little pains with the government, and the control of affairs was shared between the clerical and peace party led by Richard Fox (q.v.) and Archbishop Warham, and the secular and war party led by Surrey. Hitherto pacific counsels had on the whole prevailed; but Wolsey, who was nothing if not turbulent, turned the balance in favour of war, and his marvellous administrative energy first found full scope in the preparations for the English expedition to Biscay in 1512, and for the campaign in northern France in 1513. He brought about the peace with France and marriage between Mary Tudor and Louis XII. in 1514, and reaped his reward in the bishoprics of Lincoln and Tournai, the archbishopric of York, which was

emperor Maximilian to oppose him; and this revival of warlike designs was resented by Fox and Warham, who retired from the government, leaving Wolsey supreme. Maximilian proved a broken reed, and in 1518 Wolsey brought about a general pacification, securing at the same time his appointment as legate à latere in England. He thus superseded Warham, who was legatus natus, in ecclesiastical authority; and though legates à latere were supposed to exercise only special and temporary powers, Wolsey secured the practical permanence of his office. The election of Charles V. as emperor in 1519 brought the rivalry between him and Francis I. to a head, and Wolsey was mainly responsible for the attitude adopted by the English government. Both monarchs were eager for England's alliance, and their suit enabled Wolsey to appear for the moment as the arbiter of Europe. England's commercial relations with Charles V.'s subjects in the Netherlands put war with the emperor almost out of the question; and cool observers thought that England's obvious policy was to stand by while the two rivals enfeebled each other, and then make her own profit out of their weakness. But, although a gorgeous show of friendship with France was kept up at the Field of Cloth of Gold in 1520, it had been determined before the conference of Calais in 1521, at which Wolsey pretended to adjudicate on the merits of the dispute, to side actively with Charles V. Wolsey had vested interests in such a policy. Parliament had in 1513-1515 showed signs of strong anti-clerical feeling; Wolsey had in the latter year urged its speedy dissolution, and had not called another; and he probably hoped to distract attention from the church by a spirited foreign policy, as Henry V. had done a century before. He had, moreover, received assurances from the emperor that he would further Wolsey's candidature for the papacy; and although he protested to Henry VIII. that he would rather continue in his service than be ten popes, that did not prevent him from secretly instructing his agents at Rome to press his claims to the utmost. Charles, however, paid Wolsey the sincere compliment of thinking that he would not be sufficiently subservient on the papal throne; while he wrote letters in Wolsey's favour, he took care that they should not reach their destination in time; and Wolsey failed to secure election both in 1521 and 1524. This ambition distinguishes his foreign policy from that of Henry VII., to which it has been likened. Henry VII. cared only for England; Wolsey's object was to play a great part on the European stage. The aim of the one was national, that of the other was oecumenical.

In any case the decision taken in 1521 was a blunder. Wolsey's assistance helped Charles V. to that position of predominance which was strikingly illustrated by the defeat and capture of Francis I. at Pavia in 1525; and the balance of power upon which England's influence rested was destroyed. Her efforts to restore it in 1526-1528 were ineffectual; her prestige had depended upon her reputation for wealth derived from the fact that she had acted in recent years as the paymaster of Europe. But Henry VII.'s accumulations had disappeared; parliament resisted in 1523 the imposition of new taxation; and the attempts to raise forced loans and benevolences in 1526-1528 created a storm of opposition. Still more unpopular was the brief war with Charles V. in which Wolsey involved England in 1528. The sack of Rome in 1527 and the defeat of the French before Naples in 1528 confirmed Charles V.'s supremacy. Peace was made in 1529 between the two rivals without England being consulted, and her influence at Wolsey's fall was less than it had been at his accession to power.

This failure reacted upon Wolsey's position at home. His domestic was sounder than his foreign policy: by his development of the star chamber, by his firm administration of justice and maintenance of order, and by his repression of feudal jurisdiction, he rendered great services to the monarchy. But the inevitable opposition of the nobility to this policy was not