appointed on the 13th of November 1641 a lord of session, with the title of Lord Warriston (a name derived from an estate purchased by him near Edinburgh in 1636), was knighted, and was given a pension of £200 a year. The same month he was appointed a commissioner at Westminster by the parliament for settling the affairs of Scotland. He was a chief agent in concluding the treaty with the English parliament in the autumn of 1643, and was appointed a member of the committee of both kingdoms in London which directed the military operations, and in this capacity went on several missions to the parliamentary generals. He took his seat early in 1644 in the Assembly of Divines, to which he had been nominated, and vehemently opposed measures tolerating independency or giving powers to laymen in ecclesiastical affairs. The articles of the unsuccessful treaty of Uxbridge were, for the most part, drawn up by him the same year. Besides his public duties in England he sat in the Scottish parliament for the county of Edinburgh from 1643 till 1647, was speaker of the barons, and served on various committees. After the final defeat of Charles, when he had surrendered himself to the Scots, Johnston was made in October 1646 king's advocate, and the same year was voted £3000 by the estates for his services. He continued to oppose unwise concessions to Charles, and strongly disapproved of the "engagement "concluded in 1648 by the predominant party with Charles at Carisbrooke, which, while securing little for Presbyterianism, committed the Scots to hostilities with the followers of Cromwell. He now became the leader of the " remonstrants," the party opposed to the "engagement," and during the ascendancy of the engagers retired to Cantyre as the guest of Argyll. He returned again after the Whiggamore Raid,' met Cromwell at Edinburgh in October after the defeat of the engagers at Preston, and in conjunction with Argyll promoted the act of Classes, passed on the 23rd of January 1649, disqualifying the royalists. The good relations now formed with Cromwell, however, were soon broken off by the king's execution, and Johnston was present officially at the proclamation of Charles II. as king at Edinburgh, on the 5th of February 1649. On the 10th of March he was appointed lord clerk register. In May he pronounced the vindictive sentence on Montrose, and he is said to have witnessed with Argyll the victim being drawn to the place of execution. He was present at the battle of Dunbar (3rd of September 1650) as a member of the committee of estates, to which body is ascribed the responsibility for Leslie's fatal abandonment of his position on Doon Hill. After the defeat he urged the removal of David Leslie, afterwards Lord Newark, from the command, and on the 21st of September delivered a violent speech in Charles's presence, attributing all the late misfortunes to the Stuarts and to their opposition to the Reformation. His first object in life being the defence of Presbyterianism, Johnston could join neither of the two great parties, and now committed himself to the faction of the remonstrants who desired to exclude the king, in opposition to the resolutioners who accepted Charles. The latter for some time maintained their superiority in the kingdom, Johnston being reduced to poverty and neglect. In the autumn of 1656 Johnston went to London as representative of the remonstrants; and soon afterwards, on the 9th of July 1657, he was restored by Cromwell to his office of lord clerk register, and on the 3rd of November was appointed a commissioner for the administration of justice in Scotland, henceforth remaining a member of the government till the Restoration. In January 1658 he was included by Cromwell in his new House of Lords, and sat also in the upper chamber in Richard Cromwell's parliament. On the latter's abdication and the restoration of the Rump, he was chosen a member of the council of state, and continued in the administraThis was the name given to a successful raid on Edinburgh by a band of Argyll's partisans gathered mainly from the west of Scotland. It took place in September 1648, just after the defeat of Hamilton at Preston. The term Whiggamore is said to be derived from Whiggam, a word used by the ploughmen in the west of Scotland to encourage their horses. See S. R. Gardiner, Great Civil War, vol. iii. (1891). tion as a member of the committee of public safety, maintaining consistently his attitude against religious toleration. At the Restoration he was singled out for punishment. He avoided capture, escaping to Holland and thence to Germany, and was condemned to death in his absence on the 13th of May 1661. In 1663, having ventured into France, he was discovered at Rouen, and with the consent of Louis XIV. was brought over and imprisoned in the Tower of London. In June he was taken to Edinburgh and confined in the Tolbooth. He was hanged on the 22nd of July at the Market Cross, Edinburgh, the scene of many of his triumphs, and a few yards from his own house in High Street, which stood on the east side of what is now known as Warriston's Close. His head was exposed on the Netherbow and afterwards buried with his body in Greyfriars churchyard. Johnston was a man of great energy, industry and ability, and the successful defence of their religion by the Scots was probably owing to him more than to any other man. He is described by his contemporary Robert Baillie as "one of the most faithful and diligent and able servants that our church and kingdom has had all the tymes of our troubles." He was learned in the Scottish law, eloquent and deeply religious. His passionate devotion to the cause of the Scottish church amounted almost to fanaticism. According to the History by his nephew Bishop Burnet, "he looked on the Covenant as the setting Christ on his throne." He had by nature no republican leanings; "all the Royalists in Scotland," writes Baillie as late as 1646, "could not have pleaded so much for the crown and the king's just power as the chancellor and Warriston did for many days together." When, however, Presbyterianism was attacked and menaced by the sovereign, he desired, like Pym, to restrict the royal prerogative by a parliamentary constitution, and endeavoured to found his arguments on law and ancient precedents. His acceptance of office under Cromwell hardly deserves the severe censure it has received. He stood nearer both in politics and religion to Cromwell than to the royalists, and was able in office to serve usefully the state and the church, but his own scrupulous conscience caused him to condemn in his dying speech, as a betrayal of the cause of Presbyterianism, an act which he regarded as a moral fault committed in order to provide for his numerous family, and the remembrance of which disturbed his last hours. Johnston was wanting in tact and in consideration for his opponents, confessing himself that his "natural temper (or rather distemper) hath been hasty and passionate." He was hated by Charles I., whose statecraft was vanquished by his inflexible purpose, and by Charles II., whom he rebuked for his dissolute conduct; but he was beloved by Baillie, associated in private friendship and public life with Argyll, and lamented by the nation whose cause he had championed. He had a large family, the most famous of his sons being James Johnston (1655-1737), called “ secretary Johnston." Having taken refuge in Holland after his father's execution, Johnston crossed over to England in the interests of William of Orange just before the revolution of 1688. In 1692 he was appointed one of the secretaries for Scotland, but he was dismissed from office in 1696. Under Anne, however, he began again to take part in public affairs, and was made lord clerk register. Johnston's later years were passed mainly at his residence, Orleans House, Twickenham, and he died at Bath in May 1737. See W. Morison, Johnston of Warriston (1901). WARRNAMBOOL, a seaport of Villiers county, Victoria, Australia, 166 m. by rail W.S.W. of Melbourne. Pop. (1901) 6410. The town lies on an eminence, on the shores of Warrnambool Bay, in a rich pastoral and agricultural district. Race meetings are held here, and the steeplechase course is considered the finest in the colony. Warrnambool has a fine port with a viaduct and breakwater pier 2400 ft. in length, and a jetty 860 ft. in length, on to which the railway runs. Large quantities of dairy produce, wool and live stock are exported; and there are a number of flourishing industries in the town, including brewing, flourmilling, tanning and boot and biscuit manufacturing. Sandstone Baillie, Letters and Journals (Bannatyne Club, 1841). abounds in the district and is extensively quarried. The summer insurrections of 1794, 1831 and 1863 considerably checked, but climate is the coolest in the Australian states. WARSAW, a government of Russian Poland, occupying a narrow strip of land west of the lower Bug and west of the Vistula from its confluence with the Bug to the Prussian frontier. It is bounded by the Polish governments of Plock and Lomza on the N., Siedlce on the E., and Radom, Piotrkow and Kalisz on the S. Area 5605 sq. m.; estimated pop. (1906) 2,269,000. It occupies the great plain of central Poland, and is low and flat, with only a few hills in the south, and along the course of the Vistula in the north-west, where the terraces on the left bank descend by steep slopes to the river. Terrible inundations often devastate the region adjacent to the confluence of the Vistula with the Narew and Bug, and marshes gather in the low-lying grounds. The soil, which consists chiefly of boulder clay, lacustrine clays, and sandy fluviatile deposits, is not particularly fertile. The government is divided into thirteen districts, the chief towns of which are Warsaw, Blonie, Gostynin, Grojec, Kutno, Lowicz, Neszawa, Novo-Minsk, Plonsk, Radzymin, Skierniewice, Sochaczew and Wloclawek. In spite of the unfertile soil, agriculture is prosecuted with considerable success. Manufacturing industries have also greatly developed. WARSAW (Polish Warszawa, Ger. Warschau, Fr. Varsovie), the capital of Poland and chief town of the government of Warsaw. It is beautifully situated on the left bank of the Vistula, 387 m. by rail E. of Berlin, and 695 m. S.W. of St Petersburg. It stands on a terrace 120 to 130 ft. above the river, to which it descends by steep slopes, leaving a broad bench at its base. The suburb of Praga on the right bank of the Vistula, here 450 to 660 yds. broad, is connected with Warsaw by two bridges the railway bridge which passes close under the guns of the Alexander citadel to the north, and the Alexander bridge (1666 ft. long; built in 1865 at a cost of £634,000) in the centre of the town. With its large population, its beautiful river, its ample communications and its commerce, its university and scientific societies, its palaces and numerous places of amusement, Warsaw is one of the most pleasant as well as one of the most animated cities of eastern Europe. From a military point of view Warsaw is the chief stronghold for the defence of Poland; the Alexander citadel has been much improved, and the bridge across the Vistula is defended by a strong fort, Sliwicki. Situated in a fertile plain, on a great navigable river, below its confluence with the Pilica and Wieprz, which drain southern Poland, and above its confluence with the Narew and Bug, which tap a wide region in the east, Warsaw became in medieval times the chief entrepôt for the trade of those fertile and populous valleys with western Europe. Owing to its position in the territory of Mazovia, which was neither Polish nor Lithuanian, and, so to say, remained neutral between the two rival powers which constituted the united kingdom, it became the capital of both, and secured advantages over the purely Polish Cracow and the Lithuanian Vilna. And now, connected as it is by six trunk lines with Vienna, Kiev and south-western Russia, Moscow, St Petersburg, Danzig and Berlin, it is one of the most important commercial cities of eastern Europe. The south-western railway connects it with Lodz, the Manchester of Poland, and with the productive mineral region of Piotrkow and Kielce, which supply its steadily growing manufactures with coal and iron, so that Warsaw and its neighbourhood have become a centre for all kinds of manufactures. The iron and steel industry has greatly developed, and produces large quantities of rails. The machinery works have suffered to some extent from competition with those of southern Russia, and find the high price of land a great obstacle in the way of extension. But the manufactures of plated silver, carriages, boots and shoes (annual turnover £8,457,000), millinery, hosiery, gloves, tobacco, sugar, and all sorts of small artistic house decorations, are of considerable importance, chiefly owing to the skill of the workers. Trade is principally in the goods enumerated above, but the city is also a centre for trade in corn, leather and coal, and its two fairs (wool and hops) have a great reputation throughout western Russia. The wholesale deportations of Warsaw artisans after the Polish by no means stopped, the industrial progress of the town. The barrier of custom-houses all round Poland, and the Russian rule, which militates against the progress of Polish science, technology and art, are so many obstacles to the development of its natural resources. The population has nevertheless grown rapidly, from 161,008 in 1860, 276,000 in 1872 and 436,750 in 1887, to 756,426 in 1901; of these more than 25,000 are Germans, and one-third are Jews. The Russian garrison numbers over 30,000 men. Warsaw is an archiepiscopal see of the Greek Orthodox and Roman Catholic churches, and the headquarters of the V., VI. and XV. Army Corps. The streets of Warsaw are adorned with many fine buildings, partly palaces exhibiting the Polish nobility's love of display, partly churches and cathedrals, and partly public buildings erected by the municipality or by private bodies. Fine public gardens and several students), founded in 1816 but closed in 1832, was again opened in monuments further embellish the city. The university (with 1500 1869 as a Russian institution, the teaching being in Russian; it has a remarkable library of more than 500,000 volumes, rich natural history collections, a fine botanic garden and an astronomical observatory. The medical school enjoys high repute in the scientific world. The school of arts, the academy of agriculture and forestry, and the conservatory of music are all high-class institutions. The association of the friends of science and the historical and agricultural societies of Warsaw were once well known, but were suppressed after the insurrections, though they were subsequently revived. The theatre for Polish drama and the ballet is a fine building, which includes two theatres under the same roof; but the pride of Warsaw is its theatre in the Lazienki gardens, which were laid out (1767-1788) in an old bed of the Vistula by King Stanislaus Ponialittle palace with ceilings painted by Bacciarelli, several imperial towski, and have beautiful shady alleys, artificial ponds, an elegant villas and a monument (1788) to John Sobieski, king of Poland, who delivered Vienna from the Turks in 1683. Here an artificial ruin on an island makes an open-air theatre. Two other public gardens, city. One of these, the Saski Ogrod, or Saxon garden (17 acres). with alleys of old chestnut trees, are situated in the centre of the which has a summer theatre and fine old trees, is one of the most beautiful in Europe; it is the resort of the Warsaw aristocracy, The Krasinski garden is the favourite promenade of the Jews. The central point of the life of Warsaw is the former royal castle (Zamek Krolewski) on Sigismund Square. It was built by the dukes of Mazovia, enlarged by Sigismund III. (whose memorial stands opposite) and Ladislaus IV., and embellished by John Sobieski and Stanislaus Poniatowski. At present it is inhabited by the governorgeneral of the provinces on the Vistula " (i.e. Poland), and by the have been removed to St Petersburg and Moscow. military authorities. Most of its pictures and other art treasures Four main thoroughfares radiate from it; one, the Krakowskie Przedmiescie, the best street in Warsaw, runs southward. It is continued by the Nowy Swiat and the Ujazdowska Aleja avenue, which leads to the two streets: the church of St Anne (1454), which belonged formerly Lazienki gardens. Many fine buildings are found in and near these to a Bernardine monastery; the agricultural and industrial museum, with an ethnographical collection; the monument (1898) to the national poet Adam Mickiewicz (1798-1855); the Alexander Nevski Cathedral of the Orthodox Greek Church, built in 1894 and following years on the Saxon Square in the Byzantine style, with five gilded cupolas and a detached campanile, 238 ft. high; close beside it the former Saxon palace, once the residence of the Polish kings but now finished in 1799, one of the most conspicuous in Warsaw; a monuused as military administrative offices; the Lutheran church, ment (1841) to the Polish generals who held with Russia in 1830 and were therefore shot by their compatriots, removed to the Zielony Square in 1898; the buildings of the Art Association. erected in 1898-1900; the university (see above); the church of the Holy Ghost (1682-1696), with the heart and monument of the musician F. F. Chopin; a monument (1830) to the astronomer N. Kopernicus (1473-1543); the palaces of the families Zamoyski and Ordynacki (now the conservatory of music); the building of the Philharmonic Society (1899-1901); and the church of St Alexander, built in 1826 and splendidly restored in 1891. The Ujaz dowska Aleja avenue, planted with lime-trees and bordered with cafés and places of amusement, is the Champs Elysées of Warsaw. It leads to the Lazienki park and to the Belvedere palace (1822). now the summer residence of the governor-general, and farther west to the Mokotowski parade ground, which is surrounded on the south and west by the manufacturing district. Another principal street, the Marszalkowska, runs parallel to the Ujazdowska from the Saxon garden to this parade ground, on the south-east of which are the Russian barracks. The above-mentioned streets are crossed by another series running west and east, the chief of them being the Senators, which begins at Sigismund Square and contains the best shops. The palace of the archbishop of Warsaw, the Imperial (Russian) Bank, formerly the Bank of Poland; the town hall (1725), burned in 1863, but rebuilt in 1870; the small Pod Blacha palace, but the Austrians seized it on the 21st of April 1809, and kept possession of it till the 2nd of June, when it once more became independent. The Russians finally took it on the 8th of February 1813. On the 29th of November 1830, Warsaw gave the signal for the unsuccessful insurrection which lasted nearly one year; the city was captured after great bloodshed by Paskevich, on the 7th of September 1831. Deportations on a large scale, executions, and confiscation of the domains of the nobility followed, and until 1856 Warsaw remained under severe military rule. In 1862 a series of demonstrations began to be made in Warsaw in favour of the independence of Poland, and after a bloody repression a general insurrection followed in January 1863, the Russians remaining, however, masters of the situation. Executions, banishment to the convict prisons of Siberia, and confiscation of estates followed. Deportation to Siberia and the interior of Russia was carried out on an unheard-of scale. Scientific societies and high schools were closed; monasteries and nunneries were emptied. Hundreds of Russian officials were called in to fill the administrative posts, and to teach in the schools and the university; the Russian language was made obligatory in all official acts, in all legal proceedings, and even, to a great extent, in trade. The very name of Poland was expunged from official writings, and, while the old institutions were abolished, the Russian tribunals and administrative institutions were introduced. The serfs were liberated. Much rioting and lawless bloodshed took place in the city in (P. A. K.; J. T. BE.) 1905-1906. To the north of Sigismund Square is the old town-Stare Miasto -the Jewish quarter, and farther north still the Alexander citadel. The old town very much recalls old Germany by its narrow streets and antique buildings, the cathedral of St John, the most ancient church in Warsaw, having been built in the 13th century and restored in the 17th. The citadel, erected in 1832-1835 as a punishment for the insurrection of 1831, is of the old type, with six forts too close to the walls of the fortress to be useful in modern warfare. The suburb of Praga, on the right bank of the Vistula, is poorly built and often flooded; but the bloody assaults which led to its capture in 1794 by the Russians under Suvarov, and in 1831 by Paskevich, give it a name in history. In the outskirts of Warsaw are various more or less noteworthy villas, palaces and battlefields. Willanow, the palace of John Sobieski, afterwards belonging to Count X. Branicki, was partly built in 1678-1694 by Turkish prisoners in a fine Italian style, and is now renowned for its historical relics, portraits and pictures. It is situated to the south of Warsaw, together with the pretty pilgrimage church of Czerniakow, built by Prince Stanislaus Lubomirski in WARSAW, a city and the county-seat of Kosciusko county, 1691, and many other fine villas (Morysinek, Natolin, Krolikarnia, Indiana, U.S.A., on the Tippecanoe river, about 110 m. E. of Chiwhich also has a picture gallery, Wierzbno and Mokotow). Mary-cago. Pop. (1890) 3547; (1900) 3987, including 102 foreign-born; mont, an old country residence of the wife of John Sobieski, and the (1910) 4430. Warsaw is served by the Pittsburg, Fort Wayne Kaskada, much visited by the inhabitants of Warsaw, in the north, the Saska Kempa on the right bank of the Vistula, and the castle & Chicago (Pennsylvania system) and the Cleveland, Cincinnati, of Jablona down the Vistula are among others that deserve mention, Chicago & St Louis railways, and by interurban electric lines. The castle and forest of Bielany (4 m. N.), on the bank of the It is picturesquely situated in the lake country of Indiana on Vistula, are a popular holiday resort in the spring. Among the battlefields in the neighbourhood is that of Grochow | Center, Pike and Winona lakes. Immediately E. of the city, where the Polish troops were defeated in 1831, and Wawer in the on Winona (formerly Eagle) Lake, which is about 2 by 3 m. and same quarter (E. of Praga), where Prince Joseph Poniatowski has an average depth of 30 ft., is Winona (formerly Spring defeated the Austrians in the war of 1809; at Maciejowice, 50 m. Fountain) Park (incorporated 1895 largely by Presbyterians), up the Vistula, Kosciuszko was wounded and taken by the Russians which primarily aims to combine the advantages of Northfield, in 1794; and 20 m. down the river stands the fortress of Modlin, Massachusetts, and Chautauqua, New York. There is excellent now Novogeorgievsk. boating and bathing here, and there are mineral springs in the Park, where in the summer there are a Chautauqua course lasting for six weeks, a normal school, a Bible school, a Bible conference, a school of missions, an International Training School for Sunday School Workers, a conference of temperance workers and nature study and other regular summer school courses; and in other months of the year courses are given here by the Winona Normal School and Agricultural Institute, Winona Academy (for boys) and Winona Conservatory of Music, and the Winona Park School for Young Women. The control of the Park is inter-denominational-the Winona Federated Church was organized in 1905. Under practically the same control is the Winona Technical Institute in Indianapolis. The surrounding country is devoted to farming and stock raising. Warsaw was first platted in 1836, and became a city in 1875. History. The history of Warsaw from the 16th century onwards is intimately connected with that of Poland. The precise date of the foundation of the town is not known; but it is supposed that Conrad, duke of Mazovia, erected a castle on the present site of Warsaw as early as the 9th century. Casimir the Just is supposed to have fortified it in the 11th century, but Warsaw is not mentioned in annals before 1224. Until 1526 it was the residence of the dukes of Mazovia, but when their dynasty became extinct it was annexed to Poland. When Poland and Lithuania were united, Warsaw was chosen as the royal residence. Sigismund Augustus (Wasa) made it (1550) the real capital of Poland, and from 1572 onwards the election of the kings of Poland took place on the field of Wola, on the W. outskirts of the city. From the 17th century possession of it was continually disputed between the Swedes, the Russians, the Brandenburgers and the Austrians. Charles Gustavus of Sweden took it in 1655 and kept it for a year; the Poles retook it in July 1656, but lost it again almost immediately. Augustus II. and Augustus III. did much for its embellishment, but it had much to suffer during the war with Charles XII. of Sweden, who captured it in 1702; but in the following year peace was made, and it became free again. The disorders which followed upon the death of Augustus III. in 1763 opened a field for Russian intrigue, and in 1764 the Russians took possession of the town and secured the election of Stanislaus Poniatowski, which led in 1773 to the first, partition of Poland. In November 1794 the Russians took it again, after the bloody assault on Praga, but next year, in the third partition of Poland, Warsaw was given to Prussia. In November 1806 the town was occupied by the troops of Napoleon, and after the peace of Tilsit (1807) was made the capital of the independent duchy of Warsaw; WART (Lat. verruca), a papillary excrescence of the skin, or mucous membrane. The ordinary flat warts of the skin occur mostly upon the hands of children and young persons; a long pendulous variety occurs about the chin or neck of delicate children, and on the scalp in adults. Warts are apt to come out in numbers at a time; a crop of them suddenly appears, to disappear after a time with equal suddenness. Hence the supposed efficacy of charms. A single wart will sometimes remain when the general eruption has vanished. The liability of crops of warts runs in families. In after life a wart on the hands or fingers is usually brought on by some irritation, often repeated, even if it be slight. Warts often occur on the wrists and knuckles of slaughter-house men and of those much occupied with anatomical dissection; they are often of tuberculous origin (butchers' warts). Chimney-sweeps and workers in coal-tar, petroleum, &c., are subject to warts, which often become cancerous. Warts occur singly in later life on the nose or lips or other parts of the duke Charles Alexander of Saxe-Weimar, with whom at certain seasons of the year it was a favourite residence. face, sometimes on the tongue; they are very apt to become | the period; but its present magnificence it owes to the grandmalignant. Towards old age broad and flattened patches of warts of a greasy consistence and brownish colour often occur on the back and shoulders. They also are apt to become malignant. Indeed, warts occurring on the lip or tongue, or on any part of the body of a person advanced in life, should be suspected of malignant associations and dealt with accordingly. Venereal warts occur as the result of gonorrhoeal irritation or syphilitic infection. A wart consists of a delicate framework of blood-vessels supported by fibrous tissue, with a covering of epidermic scales. When the wart is young, the surface is rounded; as it gets rubbed it is cleft into projecting points. The blood-vessels, whose outgrowth from the surface really makes the wart, may be in a cluster of parallel loops, as in the common sessile wart, or the vessels may branch from a single stem, making the long, pendulous warts of the chin and neck. The same kinds of warts also occur on mucous surfaces. It is owing to its vascularity that a wart is liable to come back after being shaved off; the vessels are cut down to the level of the skin, but the blood is still forced into the stem, and the branches are thrown out beyond the surface as before. This fact has a bearing on the treatment of warts, if they are snipped off, the blood-vessels of the stem should be destroyed at the same time by a hot wire or some other caustic, or made to shrivel by an astringent. The same end is served by a gradually tightening ligature (such as a thread of elastic) round the base of the wart. Glacial acetic or carbolic acid may be applied on the end of a glass rod, or by a camel-hair brush, care being taken not to touch the adjoining skin. A solution of perchloride of iron is also effective in the same way. Nitrate of silver is objectionable, owing to the black stains left by it. A simple domestic remedy, often effectual, is the astringent and acrid juice of the common stonecrop (Sedum acre) rubbed into the wart, time after time, from the freshly gathered herb. The result of these various applications is that the wart loses its firmness, shrivels up, and falls off. Malignant and tuberculous warts should be removed by the scalpel or sharp spoon, their bases, if thought advisable, being treated by pure carbolic acid. A peculiar form of wart, known as verrugas, occurs endemically in the Andes. It is believed to have been one of the causes of the excessive mortality from haemorrhages of the skin among the troops of Pizarro. Attention was called to it by Dr Archibald Smith in 1842; in 1874, during the making of the Trans-Andean railway, it caused considerable loss of life among English navvies and engineers. (E. O.*) The most interesting part of the castle is the Romanesque Landgrafenhaus. This, besides a chapel, contains two magnificent halls known as the Sangersaal (hall of the minstrels)-in which Wagner lays one act of his opera-and the Festsaal (festival hall). The Sangersaal is decorated with a fine fresco, representing the minstrels' contest, by Moritz von Schwind, who also executed the frescoes in other parts of the building illustrating the legends of St Elizabeth and has frescoes illustrating the triumphs of Christianity, by Welter. of the founding of the castle by Louis the Springer. The Festsaal In the buildings of the outer court of the castle is the room once occupied by Luther, containing a much mutilated four-post bed and other relics of the reformer. The famous blot caused by Luther's hurling his ink-pot at the devil has long since become a mere hole in the wall, owing-it is said-to the passion of American tourists for "souvenirs.' The armoury (Rüstkammer) contains a fine collection of armour, including suits formerly belonging to Henry II. of France, the elector the castle commands a magnificent view of the Thuringian forest Frederick the Wise and Pope Julius II. The great watch-tower of on the one side and the plain on the other. WARTHE (Polish, Warta), a river of Poland and Germany, and the chief affluent of the Oder. It rises on the north slope of the Carpathian Mountains N.W. of Cracow, flows north as far as Radomsk, then west, then north again past Sieradz, until it reaches Kola, where it again turns west, crosses the frontier into the Prussian province of Posen, where it takes a northerly direction past the town of Posen. Then once more bending west, it flows past Schwerin and Landsberg and enters the Oder from the right at Cüstrin. Its total length is 445 m. of which 215 are in Poland and 230 in Prussia; it is navigable up to Konin in West Poland, a distance of 265 m. Its banks are mostly low and flat, its lower course especially running through drained and cultivated marshes. It is connected with the Vistula through its tributary the Netze and the Bromberg canal. The area of its drainage basin is 17,400 sq. m. WART-HOG, the designation of certain hideous African wild swine (see SWINE), characterized by the presence of large warty protuberances on the face, the large size of the tusks in both sexes, especially the upper pair, which are larger and stouter than the lower ones and are not worn at their summits, and the complexity and great size of the last pair of molar teeth in cach jaw. The adults have frequently no teeth except those just mentioned, and nearly bare skins; and the young are uniformly coloured. Two nearly allied species are recognized, namely, the southern Phacochoerus aethiopicus, which formerly ranged as far south as the Cape, and the northern P. africanus, which extends to the mountains of Abyssinia, where it has been found at a high elevation. In South and East Africa wart-hogs frequent more or less open country, near water, and dwell in holes, generally those of the aard-vark. In Abyssinia, on the other hand, they spend the day among bushes, or in ravines, feeding at night. WARTBURG, THE, a castle near Eisenach in the grand-duchy of Saxe-Weimar. It is magnificently situated on the top of a precipitous hill, and is remarkable not only for its historical associations but as containing one of the few well-preserved Romanesque palaces in existence. The original castle, of which some parts-including a portion of the above-mentioned palace (Landgrafenhaus)—still exist, was built by the landgrave Louis WARTON, JOSEPH (1722-1800), English critic and poet, "the Springer" (d. 1123), and from his time until 1440 it re- eldest son of Thomas Warton (see below), was baptized at Dunsmained the seat of the Thuringian landgraves. Under the fold, Surrey, on the 22nd of April 1722, and entered Winchester landgrave Hermann I., the Wartburg was the home of a boister-school on the foundation in 1735. William Collins was already ous court to which minstrels and "wandering folk" of all descriptions streamed; and it was here that in 1207 took place the minstrels' contest (Sangerkrieg) immortalized in Wagner's Tannhäuser. Some years later it became the home of the saintly Elizabeth of Hungary (q.v.) on her marriage to Louis the Saint (d. 1227), to whom she was betrothed in 1211 at the age of four. It was to the Wartburg, too, that on the 4th of May 1521, Luther was brought for safety at the instance of Frederick the Wise, elector of Saxony, and it was during his ten months' residence here (under the incognito of Junker Jörg) that he completed his translation of the New Testament. From this time the castle was allowed gradually to decay. It was restored in the 18th century in the questionable taste of Walther von der Vogelweide (ed. F. Pfeiffer 1880, No. 99) and Wolfram von Eschenbach (Parzival vi. 526 and Willehalm 417, 26) both refer to the noise and constant crush of crowds passing in and out at the Wartburg "night and day." 2 Wagner, with a poet's licence, has placed the Sängerkrieg during Elizabeth's residence at the Wartburg. there, and the two formed a friendship which was maintained through their Oxford career. They read Milton and Spenser together, and wrote verses, which, published in the Gentleman's Magazine, attracted the attention of Dr Johnson. Warton went to Oriel College, Oxford, in 1740, and took his B.A. degree in 1744. He took holy orders, and during his father's lifetime acted as his curate at Basingstoke. He then went to Chelsea, London; but eventually returned to Basingstoke. He married, became rector of Winslade (1748), of Tunworth (1754); in 1755 he was appointed a master in Winchester school, and headmaster in 1766. He was not a successful schoolmaster, and when the boys mutinied against him for the third time he wisely resigned his position (1793). His leisure was devoted to literature. Warton was far from having the genius of Collins, but they were at one in their impatience under the prevailing taste for moral and ethical poetry. Whoever wishes to understand how early the reaction against Pope's style began should read Warton's The Enthusiast, or The Lover of Nature, and remember that it was printed | See Biographical Memoirs of the Late Rev. Joseph Warton, by John WARTON, THOMAS (c. 1688-1745), English author, professor of poetry at Oxford, son of Anthony Warton, was born at Godalming about 1688. He was educated at Hart Hall and Magdalen College, Oxford. He was satirized for his incompetence as professor of poetry by Nicholas Amhurst in Terrae filius as squinting Tom of Maudlin." He was vicar of Basingstoke, Hampshire, and master of the grammar-school of the town, where he had among his pupils Gilbert White, the naturalist. He received further preferments in the church, and died at Basingstoke on the 10th of September 1745. He published nothing during his lifetime, but after his death his son Joseph published some of his poetry under the title of Poems on Several Occasions (1748). WART ON, THOMAS (1728-1790), English poet-laureate and historian of poetry, younger son of Thomas Warton (see above), was born at Basingstoke on the 9th of January 1728. He was still more precocious as a poet than his brother-translated one of Martial's epigrams at nine, and wrote The Pleasures of Melancholy at seventeen-and he showed exactly the same bent, Milton and Spenser being his favourite poets, though he "did not fail to cultivate his mind with the soft thrillings of the tragic muse "of Shakespeare. pothouses and crowds as well as dim aisles and romances in manuscript and black letter. The first proof that he gave of his extraordinarily wide scholarship was in his Observations on the Poetry of Spenser (1754). Three years later he was appointed professor of poetry, and held the office for ten years, sending round, according to the story, at the beginning of term to inquire whether anybody wished him to lecture. The first volume of his monumental work, The History of English Poetry, appeared twenty years later, in 1774, the second volume in 1778, and the third in 1781. A work of such enormous labour and research could proceed but slowly, and it was no wonder that Warton flagged in the execution of it, and stopped to refresh himself with annotating (1785) the minor poems of Milton, pouring out in this delightful work the accumulated suggestions of forty years. In 1785 he became Camden professor of history, and was made poet-laureate in the same year. Among his minor works were an edition of Theocritus, a selection of Latin and Greek inscriptions, the humorous Oxford Companion to the Guide and Guide to the Companion (1762); The Oxford Sausage (1764); an edition of Theocritus (1770); lives of Sir Thomas Pope and Ralph Bathurst, college benefactors; a History of the Antiquities of Kiddington Parish, of which he held the living (1781); and an Inquiry into the Authenticity of the Poems attributed to Thomas Rowley (1782). His busy and convivial life was ended by a paralytic stroke in May 1790. Warton's poems were first collected in 1777, and he was engaged at the time of his death on a corrected edition, which appeared in They were edited in 1822 for the British Poets, by S. W. Singer. 1791, with a memoir by his friend and admirer, Richard Mant. The History of English Poetry from the close of the 11th to the Commencement of the 18th Century, to which are prefixed two Dissertations: I. On the Origin of Romantic Fiction in Europe; II. On the Introduction of Learning into England (1774-1781) was only brought down to the close of the 16th century. It was criticized by J. Ritson in 1782 in A Familiar Letter to the Author. A new edition came out in 1824, with an elaborate introduction by the editor, Richard Price, who added to the text comments and emendations from Joseph Ritson, Francis Douce, George Ashby, Thomas Park and himself. corrections and additions of several eminent antiquaries," appeared Another edition of this, stated to be "further improved by the in 1840. In 1871 the book was subjected to a radical revision by Mr W. C. Hazlitt. He cut out passages in which Warton had been led into gross errors by misreading his authorities or relying on false information, and supplied within brackets information on authors or works omitted. Warton's matter, which was somewhat scattered, although he worked on a chronological plan, was in some cases rearranged and the mass of profuse and often contradictory notes was cut down, although new information was added by the editor Wright, W. W. Skeat, Richard Morris and F. J. Furnivall. When and his associates, Sir Frederick Madden, Thomas Wright, W. Aldis all criticism has been allowed for the inaccuracies of Warton's work, and the unsatisfactory nature of his general plan, the fact remains that his book is still indispensable to the student of English poetry. entirely fresh and even revolutionary in his own day. Warton Moreover, much that may seem commonplace in his criticism was directed the attention of readers to early English literature, and, in view of the want of texts, rendered inestimable service by transcrib Of the poets of the 16th In a poem written in 1745 he shows the delight in Gothic ing large extracts from early writers. churches and ruined castles which inspired so much of his subse-century he was an extremely sympathetic critic and has not been superseded. quent work in romantic revival. Most of Warton's poetry, humorous and serious-and the humorous mock heroic was better within his powers than serious verse-was written before the age of twenty-three, when he took his M.A. degree and became a fellow of his college (Trinity, Oxford). He did not altogether abandon verse; his sonnets, especially, which are the best of his poems, were written later. But his main energies were given to omnivorous poetical reading and criticism. He was the first to turn to literary account the medieval treasures of the Bodleian Library. It was through him, in fact, that the medieval spirit which always lingered in Oxford first began to stir after its long inaction, and to claim an influence in the modern world. Warton, like his brother, entered the church, and held one after another, various livings, but he did not marry. He gave little attention to his clerical duties, and Oxford always remained his home. In 1749 he published an heroic poem in praise of Oxford, The Triumph of Isis. He was a very easy and convivial as well as a very learned don, with a taste for See " T. Warton and Machyn's Diary," by H. E. D. Blakiston in the English Historical Review (April 1896) for illustrations of his inaccurate methods. WARWICK, EARLS OF. John Rous (c. 1411-1491), the historian of the earls of Warwick, gives an account of them from Brutus their founder through many mythical ancestors, among whom is the Guy of romance. The 1st earl of Warwick was Henry de Newburgh (d. 1123), lord of Newbourg in Normandy and son of Roger de Beaumont. He became constable of Warwick Castle in 1068, and, though there is no proof that he actually came over with the Conqueror, his elder brother Robert de Beaumont, comte de Meulan, fought at Hastings. He apparently spent most of his time in Normandy, and was a baron of the Norman exchequer. He was created earl of Warwick early in the reign of William II. receiving a grant of the great estates of the Saxon, Thurkill of Arden, in Warwickshire. He was attached throughout his life to Henry I., and both the Beaumont brothers were faithful to the king at the time of the |