In the centre of battle is man: his soul is the object of the war. Man is a creation of Ormazd, who therefore has the right to call him to account. But Ormazd created him free in his determinations and in his actions, wherefore he is accessible to the influences of the evil powers. This freedom of the will is clearly expressed didst create our understanding and our life together with the body. our being and our consciences in accordance with thy mind, and and works and words in which man according to his own will can frame his confession, the liar and the truth-speaker alike lay hold of the word, the knowing and the ignorant each after his own heart and understanding. Armaiti searches, following thy spirit, where errors are found." Man takes part in this conflict by all his life and activity in the world. By a true confession of faith, by every good deed, word and thought, by continually keeping pure his body and his soul, he impairs the power of Satan and strengthens the might of goodness, and establishes a claim for reward upon Ormazd; by a false confession, by every evil deed, word and thought and defilement, he increases the evil and renders service commission to purify religion (Yasna, 44, 9). He purified it from the grossly sensual elements of daeva worship, and uplifted the idea of religion to a higher and purer sphere. The motley body of Aryan folk-belief, when subjected to the unifying thought of a speculative brain, was transformed to a self-in Yasna, 31, 11: "Since thou, O Mazda, didst at the first create contained theory of the universe and a logical dualistic principle. But this dualism is a temporally limited dualism-no more than an episode in the world-whole-and is destined to terminate in monotheism. Later sects sought to rise from it to a higher unity in other ways. Thus the Zarvanites represented Ormazd and Ahriman as twin sons proceeding from the fundamental principle of all-Zrvana Akarana, or limitless time. Ethically, too, the new doctrine stands on a higher plane, and represents, in its moral laws, a superior civilization. The devil-worshippers, at their sacrifices, slay the ox; and this the daevas favour, for they are foes to the cattle and to cattlebreeding, and friends to those who work ill to the cow. In Zoroaster's eyes this is an abomination: for the cow is a gift of Ormazd to man, and the religion of Mazda protects the sacred animal. It is the religion of the settled grazier and the peasant, while the ruder daeva-cult holds its ground among the uncivilized nomadic tribes. In an old confession of faith, the convert is pledged to abjure the theft and robbery of cattle and the ravaging of villages inhabited by worshippers of Mazda (Yasna, 12, 2). to Satan. The life of man falls into two parts-its earthly portion and that which is lived after death is past. The lot assigned to him after death is the result and consequence of his life upon earth. No religion has so clearly grasped the ideas of guilt and of merit. On the works of men here below a strict reckoning will be held in heaven (according to later representations, by Rashnu, the genius each are entered in the book of life as separate items-all the All the thoughts, words and deeds of of justice, and Mithra). evil works, &c., as debts. Wicked actions cannot be undone, but in the heavenly account can be counterbalanced by a surplus of good works. It is only in this sense that an evil deed can be atoned for by a good deed. Of a real remission of sins the old doctrine Zoroaster's teachings show him to have been a man of a highly of Zoroaster knows nothing, whilst the later Zoroastrian Church speculative turn, faithful, however, with all his originality, to the admits repentance, expiation and remission. After death the soul Iranian national character. With zeal for the faith, and boldness arrives at the cinvato peretu, or accountant's bridge, over which lies and energy, he combined diplomatic skill in his dealings with his the way to heaven. Here the statement of his life account is made exalted protectors. His thinking is consecutive, self-restrained, out. If he has a balance of good works in his favour, he passes practical, devoid of everything that might be called fantastic or forthwith into paradise (Garo demana) and the blessed life. If his excessive. His form of expression is tangible and concrete: his evil works outweigh his good, he falls finally under the power of system is constructed on a clearly conceived plan and stands on a Satan, and the pains of hell are his portion for ever. Should high moral level; for its time it was a great advance in civilization. the evil and the good be equally balanced, the soul passes into an The doctrine of Zoroaster and the Zoroastrian Church may be sum-intermediary stage of existence (the Hamestakāns of the Pahlavi marized somewhat as follows:books) and its final lot is not decided until the last judgment. This court of reckoning, the judicium particulare, is called ākā. The course of inexorable law cannot be turned aside by any sacrifice or offering, nor yet even by the free grace of God. At the beginning of things there existed the two spirits who represented good and evil (Yasna, 30, 3). The existence of evil in the world is thus presupposed from the beginning. Both spirits possess creative power, which manifests itself positively in the one and negatively in the other. Ormazd is light and life, and creates all that is pure and good-in the ethical world of law, order and truth. His antithesis is darkness, filth, death, and produces all that is evil in the world. Until then the two spirits had counter-worships and serves false gods, being unable to distinguish between balanced one another. The ultimate triumph of the good spirit is an ethical demand of the religious consciousness and the quintessence of Zoroaster's religion. The evil spirit with his wicked hosts appears in the Gathas much less endowed with the attributes of personality and individuality than does Ahura Mazda. Within the world of the good Ormazd is Lord and God alone. In this sense Zoroastrianism is often referred to as the faith of Ormazd or as Mazdaism. Ormazd in his exalted majesty is the ideal figure of an Oriental king. He is not alone in his doings and conflicts, but has in conjunction with himself a number of genii-for the most part personifications of ethical ideas. These are his creatures, his instruments, servants and assistants. They are comprehended under the general name of ameshā spentā (“immortal holy ones") and are the prototypes of the seven amshaspands of a later date. These are (1) Vohu Mano (euroa), good sense, i.e. the good principle, the idea of the good, the principle that works in man inclining him to what is good; (2) Ashem, afterwards Ashem Vahishtem (Plutarch's deca), the genius of truth and the embodiment of all that is true, good and right, upright law and ruleideas practically identical for Zoroaster; (3) Khshathrem, afterwards Khshathrem Vairim (evouia), the power and kingdom of Ormazd, which have subsisted from the first but not in integral completeness, the evil having crept in like tares among the wheat: the time is yet to come when it shall be fully manifested in all its unclouded majesty: (4) Armaiti (@ovia), due reverence for the divine, verecundia, spoken of as daughter of Ormazd and regarded as having her abode upon the earth; (5) Haurvatāt (λouros), perfection; (6) Ameretat, immortality. Other ministering angels are Geush Urvan (“the genius and defender of animals "), and Sraosha, the genius of obedience and faithful hearing. As soon as the two separate spirits (cf. Bundaḥish, 1, 4) encounter one another, their creative activity and at the same time their permanent conflict begin. The history of this conflict is the history of the world. A great cleft runs right through the world: all creation divides itself into that which is Ahura's and that which is Ahriman's. Not that the two spirits carry on the struggle in person; they leave it to be fought out by their respective creations and creatures which they sent into the field. The field of battle is the present world. But man has been smitten with blindness and ignorance: he knows neither the eternal law nor the things which await him after death. He allows himself too easily to be ensnared by the craft of the evil powers who seek to ruin his future existence. He truth and lies. Therefore it is that Ormazd in his grace determined to open the eyes of mankind by sending a prophet to lead them by the right way, the way of salvation. According to later legend (Vd., 2, 1), Ormazd at first wished to entrust this task to Yima (Jemshid), the ideal of an Iranian king. But Yima, the secular man, felt himself unfitted for it and declined it. He contented himself therefore with establishing in his paradise (vara) a heavenly kingdom in miniature, to serve at the same time as a pattern for the heavenly kingdom that was to come. Zoroaster at last, as being a spiritual man, was found fit for the mission. He experienced within himself the inward call to seek the amelioration of mankind and their deliverance from ruin, and regarded this inner impulse, intensified as it was by long, contemplative solitude and by visions, as being the call addressed to him by God Himself. Like Mahommed after him he often speaks of his conversations with God and the archangels. He calls himself most frequently manthran ("prophet "'), ratu ("spiritual authority "), and saoshyant ("the coming helper "-that is to say, when men come to be judged according to their deeds). The full contents of his dogmatic and ethical teaching we cannot gather from the Gathas. He speaks for the most part only in general references of the divine commands and of good and evil works. Among the former those most inculcated are renunciation of Satan, adoration of Ormazd, purity of soul and body, and care of the cow. We learn little otherwise regarding the practices connected with his doctrines. A ceremonial worship is hardly men. tioned. He speaks more in the character of prophet than in that of lawgiver. The contents of the Gathas are essentially eschatological. Revelations concerning the last things and the future lot, whether bliss or woe, of human souls, promises for true believers, threatenings for misbelievers, his firm confidence as to the future triumph of the good-such are the themes continually dwelt on with endless variations. It was not without special reason-so Zoroaster believed-that the calling of a prophet should have taken place precisely when it did. It was, he held, the final appeal of Ormazd to mankind at large. Like John the Baptist and the Apostles of Jesus, Zoroaster also believed that the fulness of time was near, that the kingdom of heaven was at hand. Through the whole of the Gathās runs the pious hope that the end of the present world is not far distant. | Mohammedan invasion (636), with the terrible persecutions of the fol He himself hopes, with his followers, to live to see the decisive lowing centuries, was the death-blow of Zoroastrianism. In Persia turn of things, the dawn of the new and better aeon. Ormazd itself only a few followers of Zoroaster are now found (in Kerman will summon together all his powers for a final decisive struggle and Yezd). The PARSEES (q.v.) in and around Bombay hold by and break the power of evil for ever; by his help the faithful will Zoroaster as their prophet and by the ancient religious usages, achieve the victory over their detested enemies, the daeva wor- but their doctrine has reached the stage of a pure monotheism. shippers, and render them impotent. Thereupon Ormazd will hold LITERATURE.-See under ZEND-AVESTA. Also Hyde, Historia a judicium universale, in the form of a general ordeal, a great test Religionis veterum Purarum (Oxon, 1700); Windischmann, Zoroof all mankind by fire and molten metal, and will judge strictly astrische Studien (Berlin, 1863); A. V. Williams Jackson, Zoroaster, according to justice, punish the wicked, and assign to the good the Prophet of Ancient Iran (New York, 1899); Jackson, in the the hoped-for reward. Satan will be cast, along with all those who Grundriss der iranischen Philologie, vol. ii. 612 sqq. (Strassburg, have been delivered over to him to suffer the pains of hell, into 1896-1904); Tiele, Die Religion bei den iranischen Völkern (Gotha, the abyss, where he will henceforward lie powerless. Forthwith 1898); Tiele, Kompendium der Religionsgeschichte, German transl. begins the one undivided kingdom of God in heaven and on earth. by Soderblom (Breslau, 1903); Rastamji Edulji Dastoor Peshotan This is called, sometimes the good kingdom, sometimes simply the Sanjana, Zarathushtra and Zarathushtrianism in the Avesta (Bombay, kingdom. Here the sun will for ever shine, and all the pious and 1906); E. Lehmann, Zarathushtra, 2 vols. (Copenhagen, 1899 1902); faithful will live a happy life, which no evil power can disturb, in E. W. West, "Marvels of Zoroastrianism in the Sacred Books the eternal fellowship of Ormazd and his angels. Every believer of the East, vol. xlvii.; Z. A. Ragozin, The Story of Media, Babylon will receive as his guerdon the inexhaustible cow and the gracious and Persia (New York, 1888); Dosabhai Framji Karaka, History gifts of the Vohu mano. The prophet and his princely patrons of the Parsis (2 vols., London, 1884). (K. G.) will be accorded special honour. History and Later Development.-For the great mass of the people Zoroaster's doctrine was too abstract and spiritualistic. The vulgar fancy requires sensuous, plastic deities, which admit of visible representation; and so the old gods received honour again and new gods won acceptance. They are the angels (yazala) of New Zoroastrianism. Thus, in the later Avesta, we find not only Mithra but also purely popular divinities such as the angel of victory, Verethraghna, Anahita (Anāitis), the goddess of the water, Tishrya (Sirius), and other heavenly bodies, invoked with special preference. The Gathas know nothing of a new belief which afterwards arose in the Fravashi, or guardian angels of the faithful. Fravashi properly means "confession of faith," and when personified comes to be regarded as a protecting spirit. Unbelievers have no fravashi. On the basis of the new teaching arose a widely spread priest: hood (athravano) who systematized its doctrines, organized and carried on its worship, and laid down the minutely elaborated laws for the purifying and keeping clean of soul and body, which are met with in the Vendidad. To these ecclesiastical precepts and expiations belong in particular the numerous ablutions, bodily chastisements, love of truth, beneficial works, support of comrades in the faith, alms, chastity, improvement of the land, arboriculture, breeding of cattle, agriculture, protection of useful animals, as the dog, the destruction of noxious animals, and the prohibition either to burn or to bury the dead. These are to be left on the appointed places (dakhmas) and exposed to the vultures and wild dogs. In the worship the drink prepared from the haoma (Indian soma) plant had a prominent place. Worship in the Zoroastrian Church was devoid of pomp; it was independent of temples. Its centre was the holy fire on the altar. The fire altars afterwards developed to fire temples. In the sanctuary of these temples the various sacrifices and high and low masses were celebrated. As offerings meat, milk, show-bread, fruits, flowers and consecrated water were used. The priests were the privileged keepers and teachers of religion. They only performed the sacrifices (Herodotus, i. 132). educated the young clergy, imposed the penances; they in person executed the circumstantial ceremonies of purification and exercised a spiritual guardianship and pastoral care of the laymen. Every young believer in Mazda, after having been received into the religious community by being girt with the holy lace, had to choose a confessor and a spiritual guide (ratu). Also in eschatology, as may be expected, a change took place. The last things and the end of the world are relegated to the close of a long period of time (3000 years after Zoroaster), when a new Saoshyant is to be born of the seed of the prophet, the dead are to come to life, and a new incorruptible world to begin. He ZORRILLA Y MORAL, JOSÉ (1817-1893), Spanish poet and dramatist, son of a magistrate in whom Ferdinand VII. placed special confidence, was born at Valladolid on the 21st of February 1817. He was educated by the Jesuits at the Real Seminario de Nobles in Madrid, wrote verses when he was twelve, became an enthusiastic admirer of Scott and Chateaubriand, and took part in the school performances of plays by Lope de Vega and Calderon. In 1833 he was sent to read law at the University of Toledo, but, after a year of idleness, he fled to Madrid, where he horrified the friends of his absolutist father by making violent speeches and by founding a newspaper which was promptly suppressed by the government. narrowly escaped transportation to the Philippines, and passed the next few years in poverty. The death of the satirist Larra brought Zorrilla into notice. His elegiac poem, declaimed at Larra's funeral in February 1837, served as an introduction to the leading men of letters. In 1837 he published a book of verses, mostly imitations of Lamartine and Hugo, which was so favourably received that he printed six more volumes within three years. His subjects are treated with fluency and grace, but the carelessness which disfigures much of his work is prominent in these juvenile poems. After collaborating with García Gutiérrez, in a piece entitled Juan Dándolo (1839) Zorrilla began his individual career as a dramatist with Cada cual con su razón (1840), and during the following five years he wrote twenty-two plays, many of them extremely successful. His Cantos del trovador (1841), a collection of national legends versified with infinite spirit, showed a decided advance in kill, and secured for the author the place next to Espronceda in popular esteem. National legends also supply the themes of his dramas, though in this department Zorrilla somewhat compromised his reputation for originality by adapting older plays which had fallen out of fashion. For example, in El Zapatero y el Rey he recasts El montañés Juan Pascual by Juan de la Hoz y Mota; in La mejor razón la espada he borrows from Moreto's Travesuras del estudiante Pantoja; in Don Juan Tenorio he adapts from Tirso de Molina's Burlador de Sevilla and from the elder Dumas's Don Juan de Marana (which itself derives from Les âmes du purgatoire of Prosper Mérimée). But his rearrangements usually contain original elements, and in Sancho García, El Rey loco, and El Alcalde Ronquillo he ap Zoroastrianism was the national religion of Iran, but it was not permanently restricted to the Iranians, being professed by Turaniansparently owes little to any predecessor. The last and (as he as well. The worship of the Persian gods spread to Armenia and Cappadocia and over the whole of the Near East (Strabo, xv. 3. 14: xi. 8. 4; 14, 76). Of the Zoroastrian Church under the Achaemenides and Aeracides little is known. After the overthrow of the dynasty of the Achaemenides a period of decay seems to have set in. Yet the Aeracides and the Indo-Scythian kings as well as the Achaemenides were believers in Mazda. The national restoration of the Sasanides brought new life to the Zoroastrian religion and long-lasting sway to the Church. Protected by this dynasty, the priesthood developed into a completely organized state church, which was able to employ the power of the state in enforcing strict compliance with the religious law-book hitherto enjoined by their unaided efforts only. The head of the Church (Zara-Shushtrōtema) had his seat at Rai in Media and was the first person in the state next to the king. The formation of sects was at this period not infrequent (cf. MANICHAEISM). The himself believed) the best of his plays is Traidor, inconfeso y mártir (1845). Upon the death of his mother in 1847 Zorrilla left Spain, resided for a while at Bordeaux, and settled in Paris, where his incomplete Granada, a striking poem of gorgeous local colour, was published in 1852. In a fit of depression, the causes of which are not known, he emigrated to America three years later, hoping, as he says, that yellow fever or smallpox would carry him off. During eleven years spent in Mexico he produced little, and that little was of no merit. He returned in 1866, to find himself a half-forgotten classic. His old fertility was gone, and new standards of taste were coming into fashion. A small post, obtained for him through the influence of Jovellar and Cánovas del Castillo, was abolished by the republican minister. He was always poor, and for some twelve years after 1871 he was in the direst straits. The law of copyright was not retrospective, and, though some of his plays made the fortunes of managers, they brought him nothing. In his untrustworthy autobiography, Recuerdos del tiempo viejo (1880), he complained of this. A pension of 30,000 reales secured him from want in his old age, and the reaction in his favour became an apotheosis. In 1885 the Spanish Academy, which had elected him a member many years before, presented him with a gold medal of honour, and in 1889 he was publicly crowned at Granada as the national laureate. He died at Madrid on the 23rd of January 1893. Zorrilla is so intensely Spanish that it is difficult for foreign critics to do him justice. It is certain that the extraordinary rapidity of his methods seriously injured his work. He declares that he wrote El Caballo del Rey Don Sancho in three weeks, and that he put together El Puñal del Godo (which, like La Calentura, owes much to Southey) in two days; if so, his deficiencies need no other explanation. An improvisator with the characteristic faults of redundance and verbosity, he wrote far too much, and in most of his numbers there are numerous technical flaws. Yet the richness of his imagery, the movement, fire and variety of his versification, will preserve some few of his poems in the anthologies. His appeal to patriotic pride, his accurate dramatic instinct, together with the fact that he invariably gives at least one of his characters a most effective acting part, have enabled him to hold the stage. It is by Don Juan Tenorio, the play of which he thought so meanly, that Zorrilla will be best remembered. (J. F.-K.) ZOSIMUS, bishop of Rome from the 18th of March 417 to the 26th of December 418, succeeded Innocent I. and was followed by Boniface I. For his attitude in the Pelagian controversy; see PELAGIUS. He took a decided part in the protracted dispute in Gaul as to the jurisdiction of the see of Arles over that of Vienne, giving energetic decisions in favour of the former, but without settling the controversy. His fractious temper coloured all the controversies in which he took part, in Gaul, Africa and Italy, including Rome, where at his death the clergy were very much divided. ZOSIMUS, Greek historical writer, flourished at Constantinople during the second half of the 5th century A.D. According to Photius, he was a count, and held the office of "advocate " of the imperial treasury. His New History, mainly a compilation from previous authors (Dexippus, Eunapius, Ólympiodorus), is in six books: the first sketches briefly the history of the carly emperors from Augustus to Diocletian (305); the second, third and fourth deal more fully with the period from the accession of Constantius and Galerius to the death of Theodosius; the fifth and sixth cover the period between 395 and 410. The work, which is apparently unfinished, must have been written between 450-502. The style is characterized by Photius as concise, clear and pure. The historian's object was to account for the decline of the Roman empire from the pagan point of view, and in this undertaking he at various points treated the Christians with some unfairness. The best edition is by Mendelssohn (1887), who fully discusses the question of the authorities used by Zosimus; there is an excellent appreciation of him in Ranke's Weltgeschichte, iv. French translation by Cousin (1678); English (anonymous), 1684, 1814. ZOSTEROPS,' originally the scientific name of a genus of birds founded by N. A. Vigors and T. Horsfield (Trans. Linn. Society, xv. p. 235) on an Australian species called by them Z. dorsalis, but subsequently shown to be identical with the Certhia caerulescens, and also with the Sylvia lateralis, previously described by J. Latham. The name has been Anglicized in the same sense, and, whether as a scientific or a vernacular term, applied to a great number of species of little birds which inhabit for the most part the tropical districts of the Old World, from Africa to most of the islands in the Indian and Pacific Oceans, and northwards in Asia through India and China to the Amur regions and Japan. 1 The derivation is warp-npos and w, whence the word should be pronounced with all the vowels long. The allusion is to the ring of white feathers round the eyes, which is very conspicuous in many species. In 1883 R. B. Sharpe (Cat. B. Brit. Museum, ix. pp. 146-203) admitted 85 species, besides 3 more which he had not been able to examine. The birds of this group are mostly of unpretending appearance, the plumage above being generally either mouse-coloured or greenish olive; but some are varied by the white or bright yellow of their throat, breast or lower parts, and several have the flanks of a more or less lively bay. Several islands are inhabited by two perfectly distinct species, one belonging to the brown and the other to the green section, the former being wholly insular. The greater number of species seem to be confined to single islands, often of very small area, but others have a very wide distribution, and the type-species, Z. caerulescens, has largely extended its range. First described from New South Wales, where it is very plentiful, it had been long known to inhabit all the eastern part of Australia. In 1856 it was found in the South Island of New Zealand, when it became known to the Maories by a name signifying" Stranger," and to the British as the "Blight-bird,"3 from its clearing the fruit-trees of a blight. It soon after appeared in the North Island, where it speedily became common, and thence not only spread to the Chatham Islands, but was met with in considerable numbers 300 miles from land, as though in search of new countries to colonize. In any case it is obvious that this Zosterops must be a comparatively modern settler in New Zealand. All the species of Zosterops are sociable, consorting in large flocks, which only separate on the approach of the pairing season, They build nests-sometimes suspended from a horizontal fork and sometimes fixed in an upright crotch-and lay (so far as is several of the groups of birds to which they have been thought known) pale blue, spotless eggs, thereby differing wholly from allied. Though mainly insectivorous, they eat fruits of various kinds. The habits of Z. caerulescens have been well described by Sir W. Buller (Birds of New Zealand), and those of a species peculiar to Ceylon, Z. ceylonensis, by Col. Legge (B. Ceylon), while African Z. capensis have been succinctly treated by Jerdon (B. India, those of the widely ranging Indian Z. palpebrosa and of the Southii.) and Layard (B. South Africa) respectively. It is remarkable that the largest known species of the genus, Z. albigularis, measuring nearly 6 in. in length, is confined to so small a spot as Norfolk Island, where also another, Z. tenuirostris, not much less in size, occurs; while a third, of intermediate stature, Z. strenua, inhabits the still smaller Lord Howe's Island. A fourth, Z. vatensis, but little inferior in bulk, is found on one of the New Hebrides; the rest are from one-fifth to one-third less in length, and some of the smaller species hardly exceed 31 in. Placed by some writers, if not systematists, with the Paridae (see TITMOUSE), by others among the Meliphagidae (see HONEY. EATER), and again by others with the Nectariniidae (see SUNBIRD), the structure of the tongue, as shown by H. F. Gadow (Proc. Zool. Society, 1883, pp. 63, 68, pl. xvi. fig. 2), entirely removes it from the first and third, and from most of the forms generally included among the second. It seems safest to regard the genus, at least provisionally, as the type of a distinct family-Zosteropidae-as families go among Passerine birds. (A. N.) ZOUAVE, the name given to certain infantry regiments in the French army. The corps was first raised in Algeria in 1831 with one and later two battalions, and recruited solely from the Zouaves, a tribe of Berbers, dwelling in the mountains of the Jurjura range (see KABYLES). In 1838 a third battalion was raised, and the regiment thus formed was commanded by Lamoricière. Shortly afterwards the formation of the Tirailleurs algériens, the Turcos, as the corps for natives, changed the enlistment for the Zouave battalions, and they became, as they now remain, a purely French body. Three regiments were formed in 1852, and a fourth, the Zouaves of the Imperial Guard, in 1854. The Crimean War was the first service which the regiments saw outside Algeria. There are now four regiments, of five battalions cach, four of which are permanently in Africa, the fifth being stationed in France as a depôt regiment. For the peculiarly picturesque uniform of these regiments, see UNIFORM. The Papal Zouaves were formed in defence of the Papal states by Lamoricière in 1860. After the occupation of Rome by Victor Emmanuel in 1870, the Papal Zouaves served the government of National Defence in France during the Franco-Prussian war, and were disbanded after the entrance of the German troops into Paris. By most English-speaking people the prevalent species of Zosterops is commonly called "White-eye" or "Silver-eye." ZOUCH, RICHARD (c. 1590-1661), English jurist, was born | Pretorius and Paul Kruger when they invaded the Orange Free at Anstey, Wiltshire, and educated at Winchester and after-State. It was not until 1864 that Zoutpansberg was definitely wards at Oxford, where he became a fellow of New College in incorporated in the South African Republic. Trichard and his 1609. He was admitted at Doctor's Commons in January companions had been shown gold workings by the natives, and 1618, and was appointed regius professor of law at Oxford in it was in this district in 1867-70, and in the neighbouring region 1620. In 1625 he became principal of St Alban Hall and of Lydenburg, that gold mines were first worked by Europeans chancellor of the diocese of Oxford; in 1641 he was made judge south of the Limpopo. The white settlers in Zoutpansberg of the High Court of Admiralty. Under the Commonwealth, had for many years a reputation for lawlessness, and were later having submitted to the parliamentary visitors, he retained his regarded as typical "back velt Boers." Zoutpansberg contains university appointments, though not his judgeship; this last a larger native population than any other region of the Transvaal. he resumed at the Restoration, dying soon afterwards at his It is highly mineralized, next to gold, copper, found near the apartments in Doctor's Commons, London, on the 1st of March Limpopo (where is the Messina mine) being the chief metal 1661. worked. The district long suffered from lack of railway communications, but in 1910 the completion of the Selati line giving it direct access to Delagoa Bay was begun. The chief towns are Pietersburg and Leydsdorp. He published Elementa jurisprudentiae (1629). Descriptio juris et judicii feudalis, secundum consuetudines Mediolani et Normanniae, pro introductione ad jurisprudentiam Anglicanam (1634), Descriptio juris et judicii temporalis, secundum consuetudines feudales et Normannicas (1636). Descriptio juris et judicii ecclesiastici, secundum See S. Hofmeyr, Twintig jaren in Zoutpansberg (Cape Town, canones et consuetudines Anglicanas (1636), Descriptiones juris et 1890); Report on a Reconnaissance of the N.-W. Zoutpansberg judicii sacri, militaris, maritimi (1640), Juris et judicii | District (Pretoria, 1908). fecialis sive juris inter gentes explicatio (1650), and Solutio quaestionis de legati delinquentis judice competente (1657). In virtue of the last two he has the distinction of being one of the earliest systematic writers on international law. He was also the author of a poem, The Dove, or Passages of Cosmography (1613). ZOUCHE, or ZOUCH, the name of an English family descended from Alan la Zouche, a Breton, who is sometimes called Alan de Porrhoet. Having settled in England during the reign of Henry II., Alan obtained by marriage Ashby in Leicestershire (called after him Ashby de la Zouch) and other lands. His grandson, another Alan la Zouche, was justice of Chester and justice of Ireland under Henry III.; he was loyal to the king during the struggle with the barons, fought at Lewes and helped to arrange the peace of Kenilworth. As the result of a quarrel over some lands with John, Earl Warenne, he was seriously injured in Westminster Hall by the earl and his retainers, and died on the 10th of August 1270. Alan's elder son Roger (d. 1285) had a son Alan la Zouche, who was summoned to parliament as a baron about 1298. He died without sons, and this barony fell into abeyance between his daughters and has never been revived. The elder Alan's younger son, Eades or Ivo, had a son William (c. 1276-1352), who was summoned to parliament as a baron in 1303, and this barony, which is still in existence, is known as that of Zouche of Haryngworth. ZRINYI, MIKLÓS, COUNT (1508-1566), Hungarian hero, was a son of Miklós Zrinyi and Ilóna Karlovics. He distinguished himself at the siege of Vienna in 1529, and in 1542 saved the imperial army from defeat before Pest by intervening with 400 Croats, for which service he was appointed ban of Croatia. In 1542 he routed the Turks at Somlyo. In 1543 he married Catherine Frangipán, who placed the whole of her vast estates at his disposal. The Emperor Ferdinand also gave him large possessions in Hungary, and henceforth the Zrinyis became as much Magyar as Croatian magnates. In 1556 Zrinyi won a series of victories over the Turks, culminating in the battle of Babócsa. The Croatians, however, overwhelmed their ban with reproaches for neglecting them to fight for the Magyars, and the emperor simultaneously deprived him of the captaincy of Upper Croatia and sent 10,000 men to aid the Croats, while the Magyars were left without any help, whereupon Zrinyi resigned the banship (1561). In 1563, on the coronation of the Emperor Maximilian as king of Hungary, Zrinyi attended the ceremony at the head of 3000 Croatian and Magyar mounted noblemen, in the vain hope of obtaining the dignity of palatine, vacant by the death of Thomas Nadasdy. Shortly after marrying (in 1564) his second wife, Eva Rosenberg, a great Bohemian heiress, he hastened southwards to defend the frontier, defeated the Turks at Segesd, and in 1566 from the 5th of August to the 7th of September heroically defended the little fortress of Szigetvár against the whole Turkish host, led by Suleiman the Magnificent in person, perishing with every member of the garrison in a last desperate sortie. See F. Salamon, Ungarn im Zeitalter der Türkenherrschaft (Leipzig, 1887); J. Csuday, The Zrinyis in Hungarian History (Hung.), Szombathely, 1884, 8vo. (R. N. B.) John, 7th baron Zouche of Haryngworth (c. 1460-1526), was attainted in 1485 as a supporter of Richard III., but was restored to his honours in 1495. His descendant, Edward, the 11th baron (c. 1556-1625), was one of the peers who tried Mary, queen of Scots, and was sent by Elizabeth as ambassador to Scotland and to Denmark. He was president of Wales from 1602 to 1615 and lord warden of the Cinque Ports from 1615 to 1624. He was a member of the council of the Virginia Company and of the New England council. He had many literary friends, among them being Ben Jonson and Sir Henry Wotton. Zouche left no sons, and the barony remained in abeyance among the descendants of his two daughters until 1815, when the abeyance was terminated in favour of Sir Cecil Bisshopp, Bart. (1753-guage and literature, although he always placed arms before 1828), who became the 12th baron. He died without sons, a second abeyance being terminated in 1829 in favour of his daughter Harriet Anne (1787-1870), wife of the Hon. Robert Curzon (1771-1863). In 1873 her grandson, Robert Nathaniel Curzon (b. 1851), became the 15th baron. Two antiquaries, Henry Zouch (c. 1725-1795) and his brother Thomas Zouch (1737-1815), claimed descent from the family of Zouche. Both were voluminous writers, Thomas's works including a Life of Izaak Walton (1823) and Memoirs of Sir Philip Sidney (1808). ZRINYI, MIKLÓS, COUNT (1620-1664), Hungarian warrior, statesman and poet, the son of George Zrinyi and Magdalena Széchy, was born at Csákvár. At the court of Péter Pásmány the youth conceived a burning enthusiasm for his native lan arts. From 1635 to 1637 he accompanied Szenkveczy, one of the canons of Esztergom, on a long educative tour through Italy. During the next few years he learnt the art of war in defending the Croatian frontier against the Turks, and approved himself one of the first captains of the age. In 1645 he acted against the Swedes in Moravia, equipping an army corps at his own expense. At Szkalec he scattered a Swedish division and took 2000 prisoners. At Eger he saved the emperor, who had been surprised at night in his camp by Wrangel. Subsequently he routed the army of Rákóczy on the Upper Theiss. ZOUTPANSBERG, the north-eastern division of the Transvaal. For his services the emperor appointed him captain of Croatia. This was the district to which Louis Trichard and Jan van On his return from the war he married the wealthy Eusebia Rensburg, the forerunners of the Great Trek, journeyed in Draskovics. In 1646 he distinguished himself in the Turkish 1835. In 1845 Hendrik Potgieter, a prominent leader of the war. At the coronation of Ferdinand IV. he carried the sword Trek Boers, removed thither. The Zoutpansberg Boers formed of state, and was made ban and captain-general of Croatia. a semi-independent community, and in 1857 Stephanus Schoe- | In this double capacity he presided over many Croatian diets, man, their commandant-general, sided against Marthinus always strenuously defending the political rights of the Croats and steadfastly maintaining that as regarded Hungary they were | citizen, and in 1798 he published his Geschichte des Freistaats der to be looked upon not as partes annexae but as a regnum. During drei Bünde im hohen Rätien. The political disturbances of this 1652-53 he was continually fighting against the Turks, yet from his castle at Csáktornya he was in constant communication with the learned world; the Dutch scholar, Jacobus Tollius, even visited him, and has left in his Epistolae itinerariae a lively account of his experiences. Tollius was amazed at the linguistic resources of Zrinyi, who spoke German, Croatian, Hungarian, Turkish and Latin with equal facility. Zrinyi's Latin letters (from which we learn that he was married a second time, to Sophia Löbel) are fluent and agreeable, but largely interspersed with Croatian and Magyar expressions. The last year of his life was also its most glorious one. He set out to destroy the strongly fortified Turkish bridge at Esseg, and thus cut off the retreat of the Turkish army, re-capturing all the strong fortresses on his way. He destroyed the bridge, but the further pursuance of the campaign was frustrated by the refusal of the imperial generals to co-operate. Still the expedition had covered him with glory. All Europe rang with his praises. It was said that only the Zrinyis had the secret of conquering the Turks. The emperor offered him the title of prince. The pope struck a commemorative medal with the effigy of Zrinyi as a fieldmarshal. The Spanish king sent him the Golden Fleece. The French king created him a peer of France. The Turks, to wipe out the disgrace of the Esseg affair, now laid siege to Uj-Zerin, a fortress which Zrinyi had built, and the imperial troops under Montecuculi looked on while he hastened to relieve it, refusing all assistance, with the result that the fortress fell. It was also by the advice of Montecuculi that the disgraceful peace of Vásvár was concluded. Zrinyi hastened to Vienna to protest against it, but in vain. Zrinyi quitted Vienna in disgust, after assuring the Venetian minister, Sagridino, that he was willing at any moment to assist the Republic against the Turks with 6000 men. He then returned to Csáktornya, and there, on the 18th of November, was killed by a wild boar which he had twice wounded and recklessly pursued to its lair in the forest swamps, armed only with his hunting-knife. His poetical works first appeared at Vienna in 1651, under the title of The Siren of the Adriatic (Hung.); but his principal work, Obsidio Szigetiana, the epopoeia of the glorious selfsacrifice of his heroic ancestor of the same name, only appeared in fragments in Magyar literature till Arany took it in hand. It was evidently written under the influence of both Virgil and Tasso, though the author had no time to polish and correct its rough and occasionally somewhat wooden versification. But the fundamental idea-the duty of Hungarian valour to shake off the Turkish yoke, with the help of God-is sublime, and the whole work is intense with martial and religious enthusiasm. It is no unworthy companion of the other epics of the Renaissance period, and had many imitators. Arany first, in 1848, began to recast the Zrinyiad, as he called it, on modern lines, and the work was completed by Antal Vékóny in 1892. See J. Arany and Kazmir Greksa, Zriny and Tasso (Hung.), Eger, 1892; Karoly Széchy, Life of Count Nicholas Zrinyi, the poet (Hung.), Budapest, 1896; Sándor Körösi, Zrinyi and Macchiavelli (Hung.), Budapest, 1893. (R. N. B.) ZSCHOKKE, JOHANN HEINRICH DANIEL (1771-1848), German author, was born at Magdeburg on the 22nd of March 1771. He was educated at the monasterial (kloster) school and at the Altstädter gymnasium of his native place. He spent some time as playwright with a company of strolling actors, but afterwards studied philosophy, theology and history at the university of Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where in 1792 he established himself as Privatdozent. He created much sensation by an extravagant novel, Aballino, der grosse Bandit (1793; subsequently also dramatized), modelled on Schiller's Räuber, and the melodramatic tragedy, Julius von Sassen (1796). The Prussian government having declined to make him a full professor, Zschokke in 1796 settled in Switzerland, where he conducted an educational institution in the castle of Reichenau. The authorities of the Grisons admitted him to the rights of a year compelled him to close his institution. He was, however, sent as a deputy to Aarau, where he was made president of the educational department, and afterwards as government commissioner to Unterwalden, his authority being ultimately extended over the cantons of Uri, Schwyz and Zug. Zschokke distinguished himself by the vigour of his administration and by the enthusiasm with which he devoted himself to the interests of the poorer classes of the community. In 1800 he reorganized the institutions of the Italian cantons and was appointed lieutenant-governor of the canton of Basel. Zschokke retired from public life when the central government at Bern proposed to re-establish the federal system, but after the changes effected by Bonaparte he entered the service of the canton of Aargau, with which he remained connected. In 1801 he attracted attention by his Geschichte vom Kampfe und Untergange der schweizerischen Berg- und Wald-Kantone. Through his Schweizerbole, the publication of which began in 1804, he exercised a wholesome influence on public affairs; and the like may be said of his Miscellen für die neueste Weltkunde, issued from 1807 to 1813. In 1811 he also started a monthly periodical, the Erheiterungen. He wrote various historical works, the most important of which is Des Schweizerlandes Geschichte für das Schweiservolk (1822, 8th ed. 1849). Zschokke's tales, on which his literary reputation rests, are collected in several series, Bilder aus der Schweiz (5 vols., 1824-25), Ausgewählte Novellen und Dichtungen (16 vols., 1838-39). The best known are: Addrich im Moos (1794); Der Freihof von Aarau (1794); | Alamontade (1802); Der Creole (1830); Das Goldmacherdorf (1817); and Meister Jordan (1845). In Stunden der Andacht (1809-1816; 27 editions in Zschokke's lifetime), which was widely read, he expounded in a rationalistic spirit the fundamental principles of religion and morality. Eine Selbstschau (1842) is a kind of autobiography. Zschokke was not a great original writer, but he secured an eminent place in the literature of his time by his enthusiasm for modern ideas in politics and religion, by the sound, practical judgment displayed in his works, and by the energy and lucidity of his style. He died at bis country house of Blumenhalde on the Aar on the 27th of June 1848. An edition of Zschokke's selected works, in forty volumes, was issued in 1824-28. In 1851-54 an edition in thirty-five volumes was published. A new edition of the Novellen was published by A. Vogtlin in twelve volumes (1904). There are biographies of Zschokke by E. Münch (1831); Emil Zschokke (3rd ed. 1876); R. Sauerländer (Aarau, 1884); and R. Wernly (Aarau, 1894). See also M. Schneiderreit, Zschokke, seine Weltanschauung und Lebensweisheit (1904). ZSCHOPAU, a town in the kingdom of Saxony, on the left bank of the Zschopau, 18 m. S.E. from Chemnitz by the railway to Annaberg. Pop. (1900) 6748. It contains a handsome parish church dedicated to St Martin, a town hall and a castle (Wildeck), built by the Emperor Henry I. in 932. The industries include ironfounding, cotton and thread-spinning, clothweaving and furniture making. ZUCCARELLI, FRANCESCO (1702-1788), Italian painter, was born at Pitigliano in Tuscany, and studied in Rome under Onesi, Morandi, and Nelli. At Rome, and later in Venice, he became famous as one of the best landscape painters of the classicizing 18th century. Having visited England on a previous occasion, he was induced by some patrons to return thither in 1752, remaining until 1773, when he settled in Florence, dying there in 1788. Zuccarelli, who was one of the foundation members of the Royal Academy, enjoyed the patronage of royalty and of many wealthy English collectors, for whom he executed his principal works-generally landscapes with classic ruins and small figures. A large number of them are at Windsor Castle, and of the seven examples which formed part of the John Samuel collection two are now at the National Gallery. The royal palace in Venice contains as many as twenty-one, and the academy four. Others are at the Vienna Gallery and at the Louvre in Paris. His work was very unequal, but at his |