3. Plural same as singular; in some cases owing to loss of final vowel or other sign of the plural distinction: sheep, sheep; deer, deer; swine, swine.

Obs. 1. The words deer, sheep, swine, are also without sign of plural in the oldest form of English, but they retain it in Modern German.

Obs. 2. The names of most fishes and of some birds are used in the singular collectively: as, to fish for trout, salmon, mackerel; to shoot grouse, snipe, wild-duck. In the same way are used the nouns head, brace, dozen, pair, couple, yoke, score, hundred, &c.: as, so many head of deer; twenty brace of partridges; a dozen pair of gloves; twelve yoke of oxen; and in speaking of ships, sail: as, ten sail of the line. Also cannon, shot: as, they captured thirty cannon; the Germans began to fire red-hot shot into the citadel. Shots only of number of times of shooting.

Cbs. 3. In such expressions as 100,000 foot, 10,000 horse, the noun soldiers is omitted for brevity.

Obs. 4. Some difficulty is presented by a few compound words, the elements of which have not perfectly coalesced. When the latter element is an Adjective, qualifying a preceding Noun, the plural sign is then usually attached to the Noun: as,

"Where two titles are united, the last now usually takes the plural, as majorgenerals; a few old expressions sometimes occur in which both words, following the French idiom, take the plural, as knights-templars, lords-lieutenants, lordsjustices." (Morris, p. 100.)

§ 37. Double Plurals.-The following double forms are used with a difference of meaning:

:

brother brothers, children of the same parent; brethren (old
form), now used in figurative sense; members of a society.
die dies, for stamping; dice, for play.

penny pennies, the coins so called; pence, a sum of money.
genius: geniuses, highly gifted men; genii (see § 41), super-
natural beings.

index: indexes, to a book; indices, in algebra.

pea (a late word), peas, separate seeds; pease, collective. [The s is part of the root: Latin pisum.]

§ 38. Nouns used only in Singular.-Some nouns owing to the nature of their meaning are used only in the singular number. Such are the names of materials or substances: as, wine, water, oxygen, gold, silver; and of qualities: as, bravery, hardness, wit, humour.

When such nouns take a plural, it is in a different sense from the singular; for example:

1. Denoting different sorts of the same thing: thus the nouns wine, brandy, sugar, marble, have no plural as denoting the substances or things so called; but we may speak of wines, brandies, sugars, marbles, in the sense of different sorts of wine, brandy, &c.

2. Names of qualities may be used in the plural to denote repeated instances of any particular quality, good or bad: thus, negligences (Common Prayer) denotes instances of negligence; beauties, points or features of beauty; animosities, hostile feelings, &c. $ 39. Nouns used only in the Plural.-Other nouns exist only in the plural, the things themselves having a kind of plurality about them. Such are:

1. Names of many common instruments which have two parts forming a kind of pair: as, bellows, scissors, pincers, shears, tongs, spectacles.

2. Names of certain articles of dress formed in a similar manner: as, trousers, drawers, breeches.

3. Names of diseases and ailments, showing themselves by many marks or symptoms: as, measles, mumps, staggers (in animals).

4. Names of games: billiards, draughts, fives, &c.

5. Others are miscellaneous: as, Commons (House of), obsequies, nuptials; matins, vespers; proceeds (of a sale); thanks; dumps; (high) jinks, &c.

§ 40. Doubtful.-A few nouns hang in suspense between singular and plural. Such are:

Alms properly singular; the s being part of the original word (O. E. ælmesse, Gk. ¿denμoσúvn): “who asked an alms," Acts ii. 3; "much alms," . x. 2. Now perhaps oftener plural.

Amends really a plural; but also used as a singular (= Fr. amende) :

"A little amends." (Spectator.)

Eaves really singular (O. E. efese), but often used as plural.

Means in sense of manner, expedient: strictly plural; but also used as singular :

"A means to do the prince my master good."

(Shaks. Winter's Tale, iv. 3.)

Especially in the phrases "by this means;"
to an end" (in common use).

But the word can be used as plural when it denotes a number of acts or expedients:

"Thou hast shown me the means of revenge, and be assured I will embrace them." (Ivanhoe, ch. xxvii.)

"By fair means or foul." (lb. ch. xxviii.)

News: that is, tidings: formerly used either as sin

gular or as plural :

"This news hath made thee a most ugly man."

(Shakspeare, K. John, iii. 1.)

"Ten days ago I drowned these news in tears."

(Id. Henry VI. Part III. ii. 1.)

Now always singular :

"Ill news flies apace." (Proverb.) "The latest news is .

:

Pains in sense of effort, labour: strictly plural, but
used rather as a collective singular: thus we now
say, much pains, great pains, a great deal of pains
(many pains). But the plural also occurs :-
"Your pains are registered .... (Shaks. Macbeth, i. 3.)

Riches properly singular, the s being part of the original word and not the plural ending (Fr. richesse) :

"Riches fineless [endless] is as poor as winter To him that ever fears he shall be poor."

Now always plural :—

"Riches are not for ever." (Prov. xxvii. 24.) selves wings." (Ib. xxiii. 5.)

(Shaks. Othello, iii. 3.)

"Riches make them

Tidings plural, but in older writers used also as singular:

"She saw the signs that deadly tidings spake." (Spenser, F. Q. i. 7.)

Wages: the singular wage is also used.

Obs. The names of certain sciences derived from Greek are plural in form in English as in Greek, but now commonly treated as singular. Such are physics, metaphysics, dynamics, mechanics, hydraulics, hydrostatics, pneumatics :— "Mathematics becomes the instrument of Astronomy and Physics." (Lewes.) "Mechanics is the science in which are investigated the actions of bodies on one another." (Nat. Cycl.)

But some of these, especially mathematics, metaphysics, physics, are also treated as plural:

"His [Plato's] metaphysics are of a nature to frighten away all but the most determined students." (Lewes.)

"The mathematics lead us to lay out of account all that is not proved."
(Sir W. Hamilton, Essays.)

It is easy to see that in the last example but one the plural is required; but only a mature judgment can decide whether in each case that occurs the singular or the plural is more proper.

C

APPENDIX.

The

§ 41. A number of nouns borrowed from foreign languages, without change, retain their proper plurals. following are of frequent occurrence :—

Obs. 1. All such words must be regarded as imperfectly naturalized, since they still follow in this respect the laws of the languages from which they are derived. Obs. 2. Some foreign words in use exist in the plural only: e.g. literati (Lat.), aborigines (Lat.), antipodes (Gr.), landes (Fr.), i.e. sandy plains; agenda (Lat.), i.e. business to be transacted; ephemera, creatures of a day; minutiae, small niceties (of criticism).

III. CASE.

§ 42. The name of CASES is given to the different forms which a Noun (or Pronoun) assumes to denote its relations to other words in a sentence.

Obs. By the relation of one word to another is meant its connection with it, and the way in which the one is dependent upon the other. Thus in the following sentence

"The tear down childhood's cheek that flows

Is like the dew-drop on the rose,"

the word that is related to the word tear [tear that flows]; and again the word childhood's is related to the word cheek; and again the word is in the second line is related to the word tear [the tear is like the dew-drop], &c.

§ 43. There are Five Cases in English, the Nominative, Objective, Dative, Possessive, Vocative

Cbs. The term Case is used even though there be now no difference of form to mark certain distinct relations in which a Noun or Pronoun may stand to other words. Thus the Dative is now identical in form with the Objective, and the Vocative with the Nominative.

§ 44. The NOMINATIVE CASE is the Subject of the Verb, and denotes the person or thing about which we are speaking: as, Lord Nelson was the son of a clergyman; the mole is a laborious creature; wasps sting; President Lincoln was assassinated.

§ 45. The OBJECTIVE CASE follows the Verb, and denotes the direct object of an action: as, the robbers attacked the traveller; Brutus stabbed Cæsar. Also all nouns immediately dependent upon Prepositions are in the Objective Case: as, from London to York.

NOTE. The Objective Case of Nouns is the same as the Nominative.

§ 46. The DATIVE CASE also follows the Verb, and denotes the person to whom a thing is given or for whom a thing is done. This is called the Indirect Object, and may always be known by its being possible to supply to or for before it: as, Give me (i.e. to me) the daggers; the sailor made his nephew a ship (i.e. made a ship for his nephew). Here me and nephew are Datives.

NOTE.-The Dative Case of both Nouns and Pronouns is identical in form with the Objective.

§ 47. The POSSESSIVE CASE denotes the person who possesses something: as, a soldier's knapsack, Caliban's master, Goliath's sword.

Obs. 1. It is not the Possessive Case unless the form of the word itself denotes possession. In the sentence, "My uncle owns a farm in Cheshire," uncle is not the Possessive but the Nominative. But in the sentence, "My uncle's farm is in Cheshire," uncle's is the Possessive, the form of the word itself ['s] denoting possession.

Obs. 2. In such a phrase as the rays of the sun, sun is not the Possessive but the Objective, being dependent upon the Preposition of [§ 45].

§ 48. The Possessive Case Singular is formed by adding 's to the Nominative Singular; as, man, man's; boy, boy's. The Possessive Case Plural is formed by adding 's or only to the Nominative Plural: as, men, men's; boys, boys'. When the plural of a noun ends in s already, the Possessive Plural is indicated by an apostrophe only, without any difference whatever being made to the ear: as, ladies' gloves; foxes' holes; birds' eggs. When the plural does not end in s, the full form is used: as, men's and women's apartments; sheep's clothing (Matt. vii. 15).