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tuted in 1882, appointed from the second-class Inspectors (known until 1896 as Inspector's Assistants), of whom there were 161 in 1897 appointed from the head teachers of public elementary schools. In 1896 two mistresses were promoted to be Sub-Inspectors, and a third in 1897.

The staff of more than twenty 'examiners' in the Education Office who examine the Inspectors' reports, assess the grants, and revise the examination papers for Certificates, Queen's Scholarships, &c., is appointed from the class which formerly supplied Inspectors 1.

Training of Elementary Teachers. The growth of arrangements for training teachers has been noticed in the early history of the Committee of Council 2. The nation preferred voluntary institutions to a State normal school, and the system has continued until the present day. The Revised Code made the profession unpopular, and reduced the numbers and consequently the quality of the teachers supplied, and the Training Colleges passed through a most critical and anxious period; but with 1870 came an enormously increased demand, and an improvement of the position and remuneration of the masters and mistresses.

The only important change of principle that has taken place was the introduction of Day Training Colleges, recommended by Lord Cross' Commission in 1888, and finally embodied in the Code of 1890. These Colleges must be attached to some University or College of University rank, and must be under a local Committee responsible for the discipline and moral supervision of their students, and for their regular attendance at professional or other lectures. The usual practising school is of course necessary, and the idea is to enable teachers to obtain during their training some of the benefits of a University course, even if they are not able to take a degree. In the same

1 Cross Report, i. p. 71.

2 Vide p. 9.

3 Report on Admiralty Schools, 1883, p. 141; P. P., 1867, xxii. 1I, 528; 1868, xxv. p. xiii; 1872, xxv. 14.

+ Final Report, p. 100.

year the resident Training Colleges were also first allowed to admit a small proportion of day students. Day Training Colleges have been established in every town in England. and Wales which possesses a University or University College, and secondary training is also attempted in connexion with some of these institutions.

In 1897 there were fourteen Day Training Colleges and forty-five Residential Colleges, and eight of the latter took day students.

The average salary of certificated masters in 1860-70 was £94; it then rose to £121 in 1880, and remains almost unaltered. In 1860 mistresses with certificates averaged £62, but sank by 1870 to £57, and only recovered by 1895 those two-thirds which the Committee of Council in 1846 considered to be their due proportion to the men's earnings1.

The pension system introduced in 1846 and suspended in 1862 was revived to a limited extent in 1875 for the benefit of the teachers formerly under them. In 1895 a departmental Committee reported in favour of the establishment of a Teachers' Superannuation Fund, and in August, 1898, an Elementary Teachers' Superannuation Act was passed.

'A woman over eighteen years of age, approved by the Inspector' as a teacher, was first recognized in infants', girls', and mixed schools in 1875 and 1876 in place of two monitors, then as an assistant, and latterly as an additional female teacher in these schools, and also for boys in the first three standards 2.

ii. Science and Art Department.

The whole of the work now conducted by this Department belongs to secondary and higher education, and an

1 Newcastle Report, i. 641; Special Reports, 1897, p. 47. Cf. p. 11. "This is Article 68' of the Code since 1890. As such a woman need not have passed any examination nor received any training, she is regarded with much disfavour by experts and by more fully qualified teachers.

account of the origin and aims of the Department will be found at p. 168.

Grants in aid of the establishment of Schools of Art in 1852 were offered only on condition of special instruction being provided for artisans and in elementary schools; prizes to children, rewards to their masters followed, and augmentation grants to elementary teachers who passed in drawing and taught it satisfactorily.

In 1885 elementary drawing was made a class subject under the Code of the Education Department, but two years later the vote for instruction in drawing was again taken in the estimates of the Science and Art Department, and administered by it until 1898, when it was handed over to the Education Department, both in elementary day schools and evening continuation schools. Manual training was introduced in 1890, and in 1898 was also transferred to the Education Department.

Since 1890 drawing has been compulsory for all boys in public elementary schools (except in infant schools), and grants are given for it on the average attendance according to the report of the Inspector. Girls cannot earn the grant, unless provision is also made for teaching cooking.

2. THE CHARITY COMMISSION.

The history of this department will be found at p. 238 under Secondary Education, with which it is chiefly concerned. The Taunton Commission found that in 1865 or 1866 out of a total of 820 endowed grammar schools with a net educational income of £195,184 (exclusive of exhibitions to the annual value of £14,264), only 198 were elementary schools or departments of schools, and that their income was but £8,762, with exhibitions worth £17'. The Commissioners have the same powers under the Charitable Trusts Acts and the Endowed Schools Acts over foundations for elementary education as over any other endowed schools, Report, i. App. p. (150).

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except that by the Endowed Schools Act, 18731, elementary schools with an income of less than £100 from their endowment were excepted from this control.

The income of elementary schools from endowments amounted in 1871 to £50,516; by 1876 it was £102,237; by 1881 £148,000, and the increase of capital between 1871 and 1895 amounted to about three and a half millions 2.

3. THE HOME OFFICE.

The Home Office touches the system of elementary education in several places: on the one hand it controls children employed in factories and mines, and on the other it deals with the penal organization and the children sent to reformatories and industrial schools.

i. The Factory Acts.

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The first Act for the benefit of the young who were employed in factories was passed in 1802 at the instance of Sir Robert Peel, father of the Prime Minister, and himself a large mill owner, but its action was limited to apprentices; in 1819 a more general measure was passed, and the employment of children under nine in cotton mills and factories was prohibited, but there was no provision for education in it or any succeeding statute before 1833. In that year a Factories Act was passed, which in respect of education was immensely in advance of all provisions for the working classes at the time". 1833 was the year which first saw £20,000 voted for building schools for the people, but Lord Althorp's Act not only attempted in a rough way to provide schools and have them inspected, but it made the attendance of children at them compulsory.

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As originally passed by the House of Commons, the Bill

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42 Geo. III, c. 73.

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5 The Inspectors, however, took a low estimate of its value (New

castle Report, i. 207).

required any of the four Government Inspectors appointed to enforce its provisions to establish a new school, if he thought desirable, out of the poor rate. The employers were to pay a penny in the shilling from the wages of the children, and if this were not enough they were to advance the remainder and deduct the amount from their next poor rates when they fell due; if that were insufficient, the overseers were to reimburse them from the local poor rates. But the clause was struck out by the Lords, who merely authorized the Inspector to establish or procure the establishment of a new or additional school, wherever he thought it necessary or desirable, and provided no means to that end. This part of the Act consequently remained inoperative, and in any case, even though the Factory Inspectors were able men who took great interest in the schools, technical inspectors could not possibly single-handed start a system of education, the supervision of which formed a very small part of their duties.

Under this Act children between nine and thirteen might only be employed if they had a voucher of having attended school two hours on six days in each preceding week. The Inspector might require the employer to make a deduction of one penny in the shilling from a child's wages, and pay the same for the schooling of the child according to his direction.

Parental responsibility was not expressly declared until 1844', but employers and parents might be fined in case of wilful default. The former were liable to a penalty not under £1 nor over £20, and the latter to a fine not exceeding 20s. This Act applied only to textile factories.

There was no reference to religious education in this Act, nor in any of the subsequent Bills which passed into law, and in practice no difficulty seems ever to have arisen on this point.

If the Inspector thought any schoolmaster or mistress

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