nation for women; as we have seen 1, it was not until 1896 that the other sex were admitted by the University to do any papers which were set for men.

Not only does the University refuse degrees, but the College, unlike English and Scotch Colleges, refuses instruction to women. Some of the University lectures are open to the general public, of which women are admitted to form part, but Trinity College reserves its teaching for men alone 2.

The first Statutes of the Royal University of Ireland declared all degrees, honours, exhibitions, prizes, and scholarships open to students of either sex.

In 1882 Queen's College, Belfast, opened its honour lectures to matriculated women students, and the example has been followed by the two other Colleges.

St. Mary's University College and the Loretto High School for Girls are in connexion with the Catholic University.

Alexandra College, Victoria College, Belfast, and the Rochelle Seminary, Cork, are, with St. Mary's, the chief institutions which prepare their pupils for the examinations of the Royal University.

1 Vide p. 279.

2 Statement of the Proceedings from 1892 to 1895 in connexion with the Movement for the Admission of Women to Trinity College, Dublin, by W. G. Brooke : Dublin University Press, 1895. 48 pp.

3 Ellis, Irish Education Directory, 1887, p. 223. Sadler, Special Reports, 1897, p. 698.

III. HIGHER EDUCATION.

D. Scotland.

1. THE UNIVERSITIES OF ST. ANDREWS, GLASGOW, ABERDEEN, AND EDINBURGH.

THE University system of Scotland differs from that of England at almost every point, but it has adapted its growth to the wants of the people, and, if limited in some respects, it has served the nation well, and has needed but few alterations in order to meet modern requirements.

On the one hand, the Scotch Universities are more numerous, better distributed, less expensive than Oxford and Cambridge, and except in the case of the teaching body they have scarcely been limited at all by sectarian restrictions1. Consequently they have received many more students, and thus represented more completely the various elements of which the nation is composed. Sessions can be kept only by actual attendance at specified lectures, and not by mere residence within the precincts of the University.

On the other hand, being inadequately endowed, the Universities have practically abolished the College system, there has been little corporate life among the younger students, and few men have been enabled to devote themselves to the pursuit of learning for its own sake. Too

1 'Professors, Principals, Regents, Masters, or others bearing office' had to subscribe the Westminster Confession of Faith (Scotch Acts, 1690, Will. III, c. 25; 1707, Anne, c. 6), but this was accepted (with more or less reservation) by all or most of the Protestant denominations; the rule was, in any case, not regularly observed (Rosebery Report, p. 33). Only the Principals and Divinity Professors had to be ordained. Celibacy of course found no place in the regulations.

U

much of the teaching has been merely secondary, but one most important point Scotland and England (except London) have retained in common-no student has been able to obtain a university degree without spending several years among his fellows in attendance at the University.

At the beginning of the century there were four cities in Scotland which contained Universities, and two of these had received more than one foundation.

In 1411 St. Andrews had been founded, and two years later had obtained a Papal Bull from Benedict XIII1. In 1455 the foundation of the College of St. Salvator had been confirmed, in 1512 the College of St. Leonard had been founded, and these had been united in 1747 by an Act of Parliament. In 1537 St. Mary's College had been founded 3, and at the Reformation in 1579 had been appropriated exclusively to Theology.

In 1450 Glasgow had received a Bull from Nicolas V 1. In 1494 the University and King's College of Aberdeen was erected by a Bull of Alexander VI5. In 1593 the Marischal College was founded by the Earl Marischal under Royal authority 6. The two Colleges were temporarily united in the seventeenth century 7, but the amalgamation was incomplete, and they again became distinct foundations with separate constitutions and distinct staffs.

Edinburgh differed from the others in its constitution, and in its subordination to the Municipality. In 1582 King James VI or I granted a Charter to the Provost, Bailies, and Council of Edinburgh for building a 'College,' granting them the right of electing and dismissing the professors; and in 1621 an Act was passed granting to the Provost, Bailies, Council, and Community of Edinburgh, on behalf of the College, all privileges granted to any other College in the realm 8.

1 Rosebery Report, p. 387.
3 Ibid. p. 388.

5 Report, 1830, p. 305.
7163--1670 (ibid. p. 308).

2 Ibid. p. 390.
4 Ibid. p. 213.

Ibid. p. 343.
8 Ibid. p. 99.

On the whole this government by the local authorities worked well 'they succeeded where they might have been expected to fail, and failed where they might have been expected to be particularly successful. In the intellectual development of the University their success was brilliant; they took good advice and did the right thing at the right moment, and in their appointments they rarely made a mistake. On the other hand, the material interests of the University did not flourish in their hands '.'

Thus Scotland, which a hundred years ago had only a fifth of the population of England and Wales, had twice as many University towns, and though the distance between each of these and its nearest neighbours was even less than the seventy miles between Oxford and Cambridge, or the journey between either of them and London, three out of these four were also three of the four largest towns in Scotland 2.

The contrast with England is most marked in respect of denominational exclusion. In 1830 the Commissioners reported, 'The Universities of Scotland are not now of an ecclesiastical character, or in the ordinary acceptation of the term, ecclesiastical Bodies. They are connected, it is true, with the Established Church of Scotland, the standards of which the Professors must acknowledge. Like other seminaries of education, they may be subject to the inspection of the Church on account of any religious opinions which may be taught in them. The Professors of Divinity, whose instructions are intended for the members of the Established Church, are in their character of Professors members of the Presbytery of the Bounds, and each University returns a representative to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. But in other respects the Universities of Scotland are not Ecclesiastical Institutions, not

1 Sir A. Grant, The Story of the University of Edinburgh, ii. 229. 2 The Rosebery Commissioners in 1830 recommended the establishment of a University at Dumfries out of the Crichton funds, which were then available (Report, p. 85), but the money went to a lunatic asylum (Encyclopaedia Britannica: Art. Dumfries").

being more connected with the Church than with any other profession1.

"They are intended for the general education of the country, and in truth possess scarcely any Ecclesiastical feature except that they have a certain number of Professors for the purposes of teaching Theology in the same manner as other Sciences are taught. . . . Neither their constitutions, endowments, nor provisions for public instruction are founded on the principle that the Universities are appendages of the Church. All the classes may be taught by laymen, with the exception of the classes of Divinity 2.'

It was generally provided that the students should attend public worship in a body, but the rules appear to have been greatly relaxed, and there seems to have been no difficulty in obtaining a dispensation 3.

Such apartments as had ever been provided for the residence of students within the college buildings had long been forsaken for private lodgings. No doubt one great motive for this had been economy, and in Scotland the expenses of a university education had been reduced to the lowest possible amount.

The present Archbishop of Canterbury found, apparently by personal experience, that at Balliol in his time a careful man could, without withdrawing himself from the society of the place, live for £86 a year, with a preliminary outlay of £36 exclusive of recoverable payments.

6

In 1851 the late Master of Balliol considered that economy could not bring the whole expenses of a year at Oxford to less than £100 or £120, and he put the average allowance at £200 to £300. At Cambridge, £150 to

1 Cf. Professor Halford Vaughan's evidence before the Oxford Commission: A man who can take a degree is already, in point of attainments, three-fourths of a Clerk in Orders, but he is not one-fourth of any other profession' (1852, Evidence, p. 86).

2 Rosebery Report, p. 8.

3

Ibid., Appendix, pp. 163, 265, 328, 359, 409.

Ibid. pp. 180, 283, 329, 359, 409:

5 1839-41.

7 Ibid. p. 32.

6 1852 Oxford Evidence, p. 123.