In 1897 twenty-two students obtained honours in Final Schools of the University, but only two qualified for full B.A. diplomas.

2. DURHAM1.

In the seventeenth century the foundation of a University for the North of England was often proposed, and in 1657 Cromwell granted his assent to such a foundation at Durham. On the Restoration this scheme came to an end, and it was not until 1832 that the present University of Durham was established by means of some £3,000 a year and certain preferments, ceded by the Dean and Chapter of the Cathedral 2. Colleges were founded, as at Oxford and Cambridge, to be constituent parts of the University; but the funds had to come from the University itself, and Durham has always been at a disadvantage from the smallness of its resources. In 1841 some further provision was made by the Ecclesiastical Commissioners under an Order in Council. An executive Commission was appointed in 1861, with the usual powers of making schemes to be submitted to the Queen in Council and the Houses in Parliament, but very little resulted from it.

The College of Medicine at Newcastle, founded in 1851, was admitted into connexion with the University in 1852, and more closely associated in 1870. In 1865 a School of Physical Science was established, but it was in 1871 that the most important step in the history of the University was taken. A College of Physical Science was established at Newcastle, partly by the Corporation of that city, partly by the leading landowners in the neighbourhood. It received the hearty support of the University of Durham, to which it was affiliated, and which devoted £1,000 a year to its purposes 5.

Report of Commission, P. P. Eng., 1863, vol. xvi; University Calendars; Devonshire Commission on Scientific Instruction, vol. v. P. P., 1874, xxii. p. 78.

2

2 & 3 Will. IV, Private Act, c. 19.

3 University College in 1837, Bishop Hatfield's Hall 1846, and Bishop

Cosin's Hall 1851, closed in 1854.

4 24 & 25 Vict. c. 82.

5 P. P., 1874, xxii. p. 78.

Durham has always provided special opportunities and training for theological students. In other respects it has always, to the best of its abilities, taken up the movements initiated by the older Universities. Like them, it has always required residence, although in 1865, the numbers having fallen very low, the Arts course, unfortunately, was reduced to two years. Thus in 1870 unattached students were admitted, in 1871 (but this was by the same Act of Parliament) theological tests were abolished. Colonial colleges are admitted to affiliation. Local examinations, examination and inspection of schools, and, in collaboration with Cambridge, extension lectures have been adopted. In 1895 -and this was giving lead which has not been followedall degrees except those in divinity were opened to women. There is an elementary matriculation examination, and in 1896 certificates were given for Proficiency in General Education, which, under certain conditions, dispense with the necessity of passing the former test.

In 1853-54 the average number of students in residence was 120; in 1862, the impulse of the North countrymen towards Durham having died out1, the number had fallen to 442.

In 1897 there were 432 undergraduates on the books of the University, exclusive of musical and medical students. and of the 184 students of the College of Science 3.

The receipts of the University from all sources in 1859-61 averaged £9,000 a year *.

3. UNIVERSITY COLLEGES AND MODERN UNIVERSITIES. Thus much of Oxford and Cambridge, and of Durham, which, apart from Newcastle, has not differed greatly from the two older Universities. The most important change in English higher education has been the creation throughout the country of University Colleges, which in some instances have become constituent parts of a new university, but in P. P., 1863, xvi. p. 7. 4 P. P., 1863, xlvi, Evidence, pp. 4, 7.

1 P. P., 1872, xxv, Q. 8,757. 3 Calendar, 1897-98.

2

all cases have extended higher teaching to towns and to individuals it had never reached before, at low charges and in numerous subjects for which a demand has come into existence.

The movement began in 1826 by the foundation of an institution, which was an undenominational teaching college, and was also intended to be a university for London. It was opened in 1828. King's College, a Church of England establishment, was founded by Royal Charter in the same year and was opened in 1831. It is unnecessary here to detail even the first of the many controversies which the very name of London University seems to evoke. The earlier foundation received its first charter in 1836 as University College, London, and in the same year there was also incorporated the University of London, an examining body which for fourteen years granted degrees to none but qualified members of University and King's Colleges. In 1850 the University received a new charter, and admitted candidates from additional affiliated colleges, over which it had no visitatorial power or effectual control. The new qualifications varied so much that in 1858 they were all swept away, and all matriculated candidates were admitted to the examinations without any requirements as to residence or previous courses of study1.

In 1860 the Faculty in Science was created, and the degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science were introduced into England.

In respect to the success of the University of London, as Fyffe has well said, 'When a University has but one function to fulfil, the only question that can be asked about it is whether it fulfils this function well. It can no more suffer from the peculiar infirmities of Oxford and Cambridge than a skeleton can suffer from gout 2. The standard of its examinations has always been well maintained, and it has insisted on Bachelors of Arts proving their fitness for

1 Calendar, 1898-99, pp. xx-xxii.

2 C. A. Fyffe, T. H. Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria, ii. 313.

the higher degree of M.A. Yet when that question is satisfactorily answered, 'there is something chilly and forlorn in the spectacle of a University which gathers to it no glad troops of youth, which is the home of no one learned man, which ceases even to have any concrete existence between the recurring throes of examination 1.'

In 1889 a Royal Commission under the Duke of Northumberland reported on the requirements of London in respect of a University. Another Commission, with Earl Cowper as Chairman, was appointed in 1892 to report on the Bill for constituting a teaching University in London, to be known as the Gresham University; they took much evidence and reported in January, 1894.

At last, in 1898, the London University Commission Act was passed, appointing seven executive Commissioners to frame new statutes for the University. A distinction is to be established between Internal and External Students, who are to have separate examinations, which nevertheless shall test as far as possible the same standards of knowledge and attainments. All certificates and diplomas shall be marked Internal or External, but Internal Students shall, if they prefer, be admitted to the External examinations, and graduate accordingly.

The Internal Students are those pursuing approved courses of study at the Schools of the University, which are to include University, King's and Bedford Colleges, the Royal College of Science, the City and Guilds Institute, ten medical schools, six theological colleges, four colleges of music, and in some degree the four Inns of Court and the Incorporated Law Society. Besides teachers directly appointed by the University, members of the teaching staffs of public educational institutions within thirty miles of London will also be recognized as Teachers of the University by the Senate, after consulting with the Academic Council (the Committee for Internal Students). There is

2

1 C. A. Fyffe, T. H. Ward's Reign of Queen Victoria, ii. 314.
2 Also Wye Agricultural College, Kent.

to be a widely representative Senate of fifty-six members, with standing committees for the Internal and External Students, and for the extension of University teaching.

In 1867 a supplemental charter was granted enabling the University to hold examinations for women, and in 1880 they were admitted to all degrees.

Queen's College, London, was founded for women in 1848 on Church of England lines', but its best work as yet has been done in secondary education.

Bedford College was founded in 1849 for the higher teaching of women, and has been the first woman's institution to receive a share of the grant to University Colleges 2.

In 1846 Mr. John Owens left nearly £100,000 to found an institution at Manchester for 'providing or aiding the means of instructing and improving young persons of the male sex (and being of an age not less than 14 years) in such branches of learning and science as are now, and may be hereafter, usually taught in the English Universities, but subject nevertheless to the fundamental and immutable rule' that no religious tests whatever should be applied. It was to be open to all without respect to place of birth, and without distinction of rank or condition in society. The College was opened in 1851, incorporated in 1871, and lodged in its present buildings in 1874. Women were admitted to its classes in 1875; a separate College for them, founded in 1877, was incorporated in Owens College in 1883 s.

In 1871, as we have seen, Newcastle College was estab1 Bremner, p. 128. 2 £700, 1894; £1,200, 1897. 3 The Owen's College, by Joseph Thompson: Manchester, 1886.