BREMEN possesses an area of 112 square miles, with a total population in 1862 of 98,500, of which 67,000 belonged to the city itself, 6,500 to Bremerhaven, and 4,000 to Vegesack. It carries on an extensive commerce, especially with the United States, and is an exceedingly thriving place, its trade having more than doubled in ten years. The territory includes, besides the main port at Bremerhaven, two market towns and about sixty villages. The government is intrusted to a senate composed of four burgomasters, two syndics, and twenty-four councilors, and to a convention of resident burghers.

LUBECK, nominally the chief of the Hanse towns, has an area of 142 square miles, consisting of ten isolated portions, and including a popula tion of 50,614. It is still a thriving commercial town, though by no means so prosperous and important as formerly. The government is vested in a Senate of fourteen members, and an Assembly of 120 members.

II. GENERAL HISTORY OF EDUCATION.

In the FREE CITIES, as in all the older cities of Germany, and indeed of Europe, the earliest schools were formed in connection with the convents and cathedrals-they were of the church and for the church-and so continued for centuries. Of the three schools at Frankfort, the earliest was that attached to the collegiate church of St. Bartholomew, whose origin dates in the earliest times of the Carlovingians, at least, in the reign of Louis the Germanic, early in the ninth century. The others, connected with the churches of Our Blessed Lady upon the Mountain and of St. Leonard, were probably commenced early in the fourteenth century. The origin of the cathedral schools of Hamburg and Bremen may be credited to the activity of the noted Ansgar, or Anscharius, apostolic legate and afterwards bishop of Hamburg, who is known to have previously superintended the Benedictine convent school at Corvey, from which the first teachers for these schools were brought. The date of the school at Hamburg is fixed at 834-of the one at Bremen, somewhat earlier. The school at Lübeck was probably founded in 1163, when Bishop Gerold of Oldenburg removed his bishopric and established the cathedral there. The Hamburg church and school were several times destroyed-in 840 by the Normans, in 1012 by the Wenden, and in 1072 by the Sclaves-and they were yet again rebuilt in the 13th century; they have continued in existence together until the beginning of the present century, when the cathedral, being very much out of repair, was torn down and the school ceased. A list of the scholastics at the head of this school is preserved, extending from 1212 to 1805, when its last scholasticus, John Julius Palm, died.

In respect to the organization of these schools, a distinction is to be made between the lower, "exterior" school, from which probably grew the public school and the gymnasium, and the higher interior, or "domiciliary" school, which was designed especially for the training of ecclesiastics. The latter was in charge of the "scholasticus," whose duty it

was "to give faithful instruction in the scholastic sciences, and especially in grammar." The lower division was an elementary boys' school (trivial school) under the direction of the "rector scholarum" or "magister scholarum," also known as "ludi magister," who was appointed by the scholasticus and sometimes paid by him. When afterwards the domiciliary school declined and with it the efficiency of the scholasticus as an instructor, he seems to have acted merely as a superintendent of the school and to have been chiefly occupied with the management of the business of the chapter, of which he was usually one of the prelates. The office was well endowed and consequently much sought after, and was sometimes conferred upon persons who were not members of the chapter. Hence by degrees, in later times, the rector scholarum became the only teacher, appeared on festive occasions at the head of the school, and gave instruction in the higher as well as the lower branches. He also had his assistants (called "loca tenentes," "locati," "socii," "collaboratores," or "substituti,") selected by the rector and paid from his own income. The tuition fees were at first very light (at Hamburg 100 pfennings, or 18 cents; at Lübeck 2-4 schillings, or 4-9 cents, annually) and for the poorer classes were diminished, or remitted entirely. These rates were increased with

Many endowments were made

the depreciation in the value of money. for the benefit of the scholars, poor scholars were provided for by the legate and others, and there was no want of feast days (See Grimm's description of the Gregory Feast, in the "Kind- und Hausmärchen," II., XXXII.) In these schools, instruction was limited almost entirely to the Latin language and religion; in German there seems to have been very little instruction given, and in Greek and Hebrew, none at all. Reading and writing were taught in order to exclude the establishment of other schools, and singing received especial attention on account of its importance in the church service. For a still higher theological education, "lectures" were established and endowed, readers being appointed who read the scriptures and explained the more difficult passages, and by degrees became the exponents of the sciences to the convents and chapters, and these places were often filled by learned men called in from other States. These lectures have continued in Lübeck to the present time and have been transferred for the essential purpose for which they were created, the instruction of the younger theological classes, to the use of the Protestant churches. After the establishment of the university at Mentz, the domiciliary school at Frankfort declined, the inferior school alone remaining.

Another institution that has survived till the present time which originated in connection with the Hamburg church and school, is the "Fraternity of Poor Scholars," founded about 1285 for the decent burial of poor or stranger priests, clerks, and students.

At length, in the 14th century, arose what we are used to call the revival of classical study. Commencing in Italy, Rudolf Agricola was the first mentioned representative of the new tendency in Germany, though Erasmus attained the greatest renown in his defense of humanism. The youth applied themselves with enthusiasm to the study of the classics

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the opposition of the Dominicans was ineffectual; and the followers of the new movement, usually called "poetæ," turned their energies to the instruction of youth. In 1496 there came a "poet" to Frankfort and offered for the purpose of supporting himself, to "give poetical readings to the young for a quarter of a year," for which he received two guilders monthly.

Thus commenced the radical movement in the city of Frankfort; but it was not merely this reaction against scholasticism, which wrought upon the school system. As the condition of the citizens had gradually improved, the desire for education also increased and the existing schools gave the less satisfaction. As they could not gain control over the church schools, the magistrates and citizens sought to establish others, which the clergy, on the other hand, used all their power to prevent, or at least to bring under their own supervision and confine to as low a grade as possible. In 1253 the city of Lübeck obtained permission from the pope to establish a special city school, and also Hamburg in 1281. These schools gave rise to frequent and bitter quarrels between the clergy and the magistrates, the chapters refused to recognize the grants until the schools were made subordinate and tributary to the scholasticus, and the contention did not cease between the parties till the time of the Reformation. This whole movement, indeed, in favor of popular education appears evidently not to have arisen in the church, but without and in opposition to the influence of the church. Thus in Hamburg, early in the 15th century, the scholasticus, ever anxiously solicitous about privileges and incomes, made complaint to the pope of the unlicensed schools that were drawing away scholars from the two privileged schools, which were therefore commanded to be closed under penalty of excommunication. A similar complaint was made in 1472, but the like commands met with much less ready obedience. The city council sustained the secular schools and after repeated appeals which were uniformly decided in favor of the scholasticus, the council finally relieved itself from the ban of excommunication by an agreement of indemnification to the scholasticus and that there should be but a single school of forty scholars for instruction in German, reading and writing. In Lübeck too, the four German reading, and writing schools were founded only after long contention between the chapter and the council; and in Bremen, excommunication alone forced the council to yield to the terms of the church.

With the Reformation, which was introduced into Bremen in 1522, Hamburg in 1529, and Lübeck in 1531, advancement was more rapid. In Hamburg a new classical school was opened by Bugenhagen in 1529 in the convent of St. John, hence known as the Johanneum, and the Nicolai school of 1281 was changed into an evangelical public school. At Lübeck, the chapter schools were closed, and a new classical school, the Catharineum, was founded by Bugenhagen in 1531. Reading and writing schools were also multiplied, and even female schools were contemplated but do not appear to have gone into operation. At Frankfort, in 1521, a number of prominent families wishing to establish a new school

applied to Erasmus who recommended to them his scholar, William Nesen, who founded there the "Junker school"-the miserable commencement of the Frankfort gymnasium. It was at first but a private school and though there was no want of scholars, yet for want of sufficient support from the city council, Nesen left at the end of three years, and was succeeded by Ludwig Carinus, who likewise remained scarcely three years. Jacob Molyer followed, better known as Micyllus, and one of the most able educationists of the 16th century. He remained until 1532 under the same unfavorable circumstances as his predecessors, with a salary of about fifty florins ($21.) In 1537 he was recalled from his position as professor at Heidelberg, through the influence of Melancthon and with the determination to improve the condition of the school. His salary was raised to 150 florins, and a school ordinance was passed whose peculiar merit lay in an unusual regard for the practical objects of instruction. The school was divided into five classes and the assistant teachers were paid by a tuition fee of four florins annually. This institution was long called the "Barefooted school," from being held in the convent previously occupied by the order of barefooted friars.

While the cathedral schools at Frankfort were thus being supplanted, other schools also arose as the commencement of the common schoolthe German reading and writing schools, called also briefly "German schools." The first teacher of whom mention is made, was Jacob Medebach, in 1543, a cobbler; but by the end of the century there were at least eighteen such. Small claim, indeed, was made upon their learning; knowledge of the catechism, ability to read and write, and the capacity to maintain discipline by means of the rod, were qualifications amply sufficient. The authorities troubled themselves little about these schools, so that various abuses arose, and among others that the children were transferred from one school to another for the purpose of defrauding the teacher. Hence, in 1591, the teachers met and agreed upon certain general regulations respecting the time of admission to school, and the amount of tuition fee (12-18 schillings quarterly=15–21 cents, exclusive of arithmetic,) and requiring each scholar on admission to produce the receipt of his former teacher. The city council also in the same year required the visitation of the schools by the preachers, regulated begging by poor scholars, and limited the tuition fees to one florin a year, or to twice that amount for wealthier children. Thus the school teachers were formed into a "guild," and were recognized as such; they had an elected head and a common treasury, they met quarterly in con vention, and at a later period had also a widows' fund. But these "quarter" schools also were not without their quarrels, which arose principally from the religious differences between the Lutherans and Calvinists, and still another difficulty arose from the unlicensed of "hedge" schools, which was finally removed for a time by a city regula tion that no school could be opened without permission from the au thorities

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In this form the Frankfort school system remained, in all essential points unchanged till the re-organization of Frankfort as a free city in 1815. During this time the number of teachers varied from sixteen to thirty-two, each school being limited to a single assistant and hence restricted to a moderate number of scholars. The schools were sometimes under the charge of female teachers, which is explained by the fact that the school privilege was a real right, transferable by inheritance or sale. The course of study was probably extended so as even sometimes to include French, but there were special charges for instruction in all branches beyond the elementary ones of reading and writing.

That this arrangement, as carried out, was by no means satisfactory, is evident from a reform document by one of the teachers, J. M. Schirmer, in the middle of the 18th century. He proposed that the number of schools should be limited, the teachers paid by the State, a revival of the regulation requiring visitation of the schools, and that all teacherships should be made hereditary. He was especially opposed to the numerous "hedge" schools which had again arisen, kept by "school disturbers" and various kinds of strollers, "lackeys, tailors, shoemakers, stocking weavers, wig makers, journeymen printers, invalid soldiers, and sewing and knitting women," who managed to gain a subsistence by means of instruction in German and the catechism. But his criticism met with slight response and no attempt at a re-organization was made until within the present century, when a great improvement in the schools was inaugurated through the active exertions of the mayor Baron von Gunderode and Dr. Hufnagel, Sr., by whom the new "Model School" was founded in 1803. In 1804 was founded the Jewish school, the "Philanthropin;" in 1813, the "White Lady's School," the first purely State common school; in 1816, the German Reformed Free School, and the female school of the Ladies' Society. During these changes the quarter schools had gradually diminished in number, and in 1824 they were wholly displaced by the formation of four evangelical common schools, to which were added in 1857 a higher burgher school.

Of the early Catholic schools at Frankfort, the cathedral school of St. Bartholomew was the only one which survived the Reformation, which was only for boys and under the charge of the rector and a single assistant. As the number of Catholics afterwards increased, some English nuns from Fulda were permitted to commence a female school, and still later the Rosenberg nuns established a similar school for pupils from the wealthier families. In 1783 a real school was added to the trivial school of the cathedral, and in 1790 the Catholic gymnasium, the "Fridericianum,” was founded. In 1808 the school of the Rosenberg nuns was changed to a common school, and the hitherto public school of the English nuns, to a female high school. In 1812 the cathedral gymnasium and the Fridericianum were formed into one grand-ducal gymnasium common to all religions, leaving nothing but the real division as a special Catholic real school, which was also dissolved two years