the Bible as well as of portions of the catechism; excellent arithmetical and geometrical text-books are used, and the only subject which has not been reached is, perhaps, geography. The careful semi-annual visitations made to every school, by competent men, serve to keep the system in excellent working order.

d. Discipline and Hygiene.-The progressive tendencies of the age have, also, reached the sphere of discipline. The true value of the human being, his rights and corresponding duties, found their way into the higher schools of Wurtemberg, through the writings of Rousseau, Basedow, Salzman, and Pestalozzi, and have effected a material change in the mutual relation of teachers and scholars. The means which the school employs to accomplish its two-fold object, viz., instruction and education, are more suitable to the requirements of each individual; the discipline is more considerate, more cautious-in one word, more humane. Direct bodily punishment, the chief means of maintaining discipline in former times, has not been banished entirely, either by law or cus tom, but has been greatly modified, and is seldom employed. This mode of punishing will, no doubt, remain in schools as long as it is employed in the family. In its application a great deal depends on the individuality of the teachers, and the early home education of the scholars. The law contains very strict regulations to prevent its abuse. In the gymnasium and most of the other secondary schools, every case of corporal punishment must be confined to a number of strokes with a thin switch on the hand, and must be entered in the school diary. The number of even such cases is rapidly diminishing, especially since the school has established closer connection with the parents by frequent reports regarding the diligence and behavior of their sons. Formerly the system of ranking in place (locationen) the pupil, was carried out with iron uniformity, even in the higher seminaries and the University; candidates and magisters, like boys of seven or eight years, went up and down in the scale, and the place each one occupied was put in print, and the locus which a seminarist obtained at the University stuck to him through life. Most of these abuses have now been abolished. In some of the larger schools prizes are distributed publicly at the end of the scholastic year, but there are no general regulations or uniform practice on the subject.

Nothing shows the humane spirit of the present system better than the regulations of 1818, concerning the former cloister schools (now called seminaries), by which minute and rigid rules have given way to the common law of kindness between scholars and teachers, as between a father and his sons.

The health and bodily comfort of the scholars, also, occupies more attention than formerly. The period of instruction has been shortened: the afternoon exercises can not begin before 2 o'clock; the vacations have been prolonged; the amount of home work has been reduced; the school-houses and premises, formerly much neglected, are thoroughly

inspected, and any damage quickly repaired, and strict regulations, as to the ventilation, cleanliness, &c., exist and are observed. Much attention is, also, paid to the school benches, on account of the alarming increase of near-sightedness among scholars. Old abuses and neglect, in spite of excellent regulations, still linger, but much has been done, and the best hopes may be entertained for the future.

Up to the year 1792 bathing (outside of a house) was strictly prohibited as being highly immoral; now it is every where encouraged as highly beneficial for the bodily well-being of the scholars, and where there are no natural facilities for bathing, artificial baths are provided.

The introduction of gymnastics, which, in 1863, was made obligatory on all classes, has every where been accompanied by the best results. A regular system developed by Prof. Jaeger was adopted, and subsidies in aid of the necessary apparatus and halls granted, and in many places special teachers were appointed. At certain seasons of the year large gymnastic festivals and public excursions are held. Wherever opportunity offers, swimming, skating, and fencing are practiced.

III. REAL SCHOOLS.

The foregoing remarks concerning discipline apply, also, to another class of schools, an important creation of modern times, viz., the Real schools, which, after various futile attempts, were introduced during the third and fourth decades of the present century, The name was already known in the 18th century; an ordinance in 1793 permitted their establishment, but without immediate results. But the time came, at last, when something definite was done to meet the demand for more realistic instruction. An eminent scholar, F. W. Klumpp, in 1829 and 1830, proposed to reduce the classical subjects at the Latin schools and gymnasiums, and increase the realistic subjects; and as neither the public nor the government received this proposal favorably, a private school was created at Stuttgard in the following year, on these principles.

In 1833 a decisive step was taken by the Estates. They petitioned the government to reorganize the whole system of schools with special regard to realistic studies, and declared themselves ready to make the appropriations necessary for the support of the teachers who wished to prepare for this grade of schools. In consequence of a ministerial resolution of November 16, 1835, the real school was instituted, and aided. Its establishment in any place was left to the local authorities, who were advised to establish two kinds of real schools, viz., higher and lower ones. The resolution provides for regular visitations to be held at the real schools, by the district school inspectors (this, since 1850, was the official title of the pædagogarchi). The government appoints all the teachers, and for the fiscal period 1856-1859, appropriated the sum of 38,000 florins, and in 1856 the programme for the examination of real schoolteachers was published; and in 1858 a seminary (at Tübingen) was es tablished for the education of such teachers, which, however, was discor

tinued in 1866, and in the place of this preparation, candidates for teachers' places at real schools were required to study for several years at some polytechnic school. The examination programme is a two-fold one, viz., for teachers at higher and for teachers at lower real schools, and demands a very thorough acquaintance with the different subjects taught. Each of these examinations was both theoretical and practical. Traveling, in order to extend by observation in similar schools, and in practical life, the knowledge gained at the school, was strongly recommended, and a government subsidy promised in aid. But with this aid the attainment of the required qualifications was expensive to the candidates. Another drawback was the want of some central subject of instruction for this whole class of schools, and the question was discussed whether French, German, or mathematics should be the subject. With many the variety of subjects formed an essential characteristic of the real schools.

In reference to teaching in this class of schools, a new programme of examination was published July 20, 1864, and is still in force. The most important points are: 1, the examination ceases to be two-fold, for the second (practical) examination is substituted a trial in teaching, which presupposes that the candidate has taught, at least one year, at some real school; 2, the theoretical examination is in some respects made easier, and in others, e. g. drawing, more difficult; 3, an option is given between the historic-philological, and the studies in natural sciences; 4, opportunity is offered to all candidates to be examined in Latin. The subjects of examination for candidates for teachers' places at the lower real schools are: Religion, German, French, history, geography, mathematics (equations of the second degree, stereometry, trigonometry,) natural history, physics, chemistry, drawing; for candidates for the higher real schools, the examination extends in the historic-philological division over the following subjects: German language and literature, French language, English language, history and geography; Latin and Italian optional; and in the division for natural science: Mathematics (spheric trigonometry, lower analysis, descriptive and practical geometry), physics (history of physics), mechanism, chemistry (technical and analytical), natural history (thorough knowledge of one of the three kingdoms). The number of teachers who have passed these examinations has not met the actual demand. To meet this demand the students in the Protestant and Catholic seminaries, by a resolution of 1866, are freed from the study of philology if they wish to become teachers. At the University a seminary for modern philology has been established, and quite recently, another for physico-mathematics.

The following statistics show the increase of realistic instruction: March 1, 1833, the number of real schools was 15; in 1843, the number of schools was 52 with 90 teachers, and 1,371 scholars; in 1867, the number of schools was 79, of teachers, 152, of scholars, 4,917.

The subjects of instruction at the real schools are: French, mathe

matics, natural sciences, drawing. In the second line follow: Religion, German, history, geography, singing, penmanship, gymnastics, and in some schools English, as an optional subject. As a sample, we give the course of instruction, and hours per week, exclusive of gymnastics, at the REAL GYMNASIUM at Stuttgard, 1867-1868.

We also give the course of instruction, and hours per week, exclusive of gymnastics, at the Real School at Tübingen, winter 1867-68.

NOTE. In class IV, instruction in French, English, mathematics, &c., is given in two divisions. * Optional.

The lessons are given in winter from 8-12, 2-4, including optional subjects, 2-6; in summer: 7-11 and 2-4, including the optional subjects and gymnastics, 2-6.

There still remains to be mentioned the "Burgher School," in Stuttgard, instituted in 1863, by the commune, but under the superintendence of the Ministerial Bureau for Higher Instruction. Its general aim and course, also, is the same as that of the real-school, with this exception, that French is an optional subject, which is commenced in class V with scholars 11 years of age, and is pursued by about half the school. This institution, in 1869, numbered 426 scholars in 9 classes, with 9 teachers. The school-fees vary from 8-12 florins, with an extra charge of 4 florins for French. Private munificence has provided free places for 16-18 scholars. The number of lessons per week varies from 22-23. The . teachers are examined as real-school teachers, and are appointed by the government.

4. Education and Examination of Teachers.-Prior to 1793, and practically down to 1829, the teachers of secondary schools were graduates of the theological seminarics and the University, in which there existed no special courses for future teachers. In 1828, competitive examination was introduced, but failed to accomplish its object for want of definiteness as to the subjects and modes, and of any large and immediate inducement. The modifications of 1850 and 1853 supplied these defects, and those of 1865, providing a new examination for philological teachers, and those of 1866, regulating the examination of theological students in Tübingen, have settled the system as follows: (1.) A philological seminary exists at Tübingen, and pedagogical instruction is given at the theological seminaries by eminent teachers. (2.) Competitive examinations are held twice a year for vacancies in the chief and subordinate situations in the secondary schools. (3.) The examining board is composed of professors of the University, and prominent gymnasial teachers. (4.) The examinations for second grades of position, are held separate and with different requirements, and on the different subjects-may be held at different periods by the same candidate-the philological at one, and the scientific at another. (5.) No candidate can be admitted to the examination without the diploma of the University, and the certificate of the theological seminary, with special exceptions for subordinate positions, and for the real-schools. If the vacancy is for a professor's chair (head-master of the first class, gymnasium,) the candidate must submit a Latin essay on a theme set by the examiners. Students of Protestant theology as well as Catholic theology, at the William College, are exempted from certain requirements if they show aptness and seem to devote themselves to teaching. (6.) The examinations are both written and oral. The subjects are obligatory and optional, and the extent, and authors which must be read, are specified. For the preceptor's place: Classical philology, German and French, arithmetic, geography, history, religion (for non-theologians :) the following are optional: Algebra, geometry, and singing. For the professor's place, the examination goes deeper, and includes, also, physics, and the literature of German and French, English, Hebrew. Both classes of candidates must give a trial