1 Special School of Drawing for Young Women at Paris. 1 National Conservatory of Music at Paris: 87 professors. 1 Institution for the Blind at Paris, besides 6 provincial schools. 1 Central Correctional House of Education at Paris. SECOND. MINISTRY OF AGRICULTURE, COMMERCE, AND PUBLIC WORKS: 9 Agricultural Courses, with 11 professors. 1 National Agronomic Institute at Versailles. 70 School-farms. 1 Practical School of Irrigation and Drainage at Lizardeau ; 2 professors. 3 Imperial Sheep-folds and Cow-houses (bergeries and vacheries.) 1 Superior School of Commerce at Paris; 1 School of Chamber of Com- 1 Imperial School of Bridges and Roads at Paris; 22 professors. 3 Imperial Schools of Mines, viz., at Paris, 15 professors; at St. Etienne, 1 Imperial Conservatory of Arts and Industry at Paris; 19 professors. School of Watchmaking at Cluses (Savoy,) besides several provincial schools. THIRD. MINISTRY OF WAR: 1 Imperial Polytechnic School at Paris; 22 professors, 19 assistants, and 350 pupils. 1 Special Military School at St. Cyr; 33 professors. 1 Staff-school (ecole du corps d'etat-major) at Paris; 19 professors. 1 School of Artillery and Military Engineering [ecole d'application de l'artillerie et du genie] at Metz, with 28 professors. 1 Imperial School of Cavalry at Saumur; 40 professors. 1 Cavalry-musicians' school [ecole de trompettes] at Saumur. 1 Imperial School of Military Medicine and Pharmacy at Paris; 13 pro fessors. 1 Imperial School for the Sanitary Service at Strasburg; 12 professors. 1 Normal Shooting-school (ecole normale de tir;) 11 teachers. 1 Normal School of Military Gymnastics at Vincennes; 3 teachers. 1 Imperial Prytaneum (orphans of officers) at La Flèché; 25 professors. 11 Regimental Schools of Artillery. 3 Regimental Schools of Engineering. 5 Military Gymnasiums. 1 Military Musical Gymnasium at Paris, 1 Bureau of Longitudes; 6 professors. 1 Imperial Observatory; 18 professors, assistants and calculators. Regimental schools for the infantry of the line exist in all the corps. FOURTH.-MINISTRY OF MArine and the COLONIES: 1 School of Naval Architecture at Paris, with 30 pupils; 3 professors. 1 Practical School of Maritime Engineering at L'Orient; 9 professors. 1 Imperial Naval School at Brest; 11 professors. 42 National Schools of Hydrography; 42 professors. 3 Imperial Schools of Naval Pharmacy and Medicine at Brest, Rochefort, and Toulon; 15 professors. 6 Nautical School-ships; 5 Naval Apprentice Schools; 2 Schools for Naval Engineers and Stokers; 2 Naval Drawing Schools. FIFTH.-MINISTRY OF FINANCE: 1 Imperial School of Forestry at Nancy; 8 professors. 1 School of the Manufacture of Tobacco at Paris; 7 professors. SIXTH.-MINISTRY OF THE FINE ARTS AND THE IMPERIAL HOUSEHOLD: 4 Imperial Schools of the Fine Arts; at Paris, Rome, Lyons, and Dijon. 1 National Special School of Drawing and Mathematics applied to the Industrial Arts, at Paris. IV. SUPERIOR AND PROFESSIONAL INSTRUCTION. (1.) General Organization-Faculties and Institutions. (2.) Letters and Sciences. (3.) Theology. (4.) Law. (5.) Medicine and Surgery. (6.) Institutions outside of the Faculties. (7.) Laboratories and New Practical School of Higher Studies. (8.) Proposed Re-organization. SUPERIOR INSTRUCTION in France is administered by the State in: 1. Faculties, each with its corps of professors and teachers sufficient to impart instruction to the number of students in letters, sciences, theology, law, or medicine; 2. Institutions devoted to higher studies and original research; 3. Institutions devoted to science and special public service; 4. Institutions to promote discoveries in science and the highest culture in art. The five Faculties, in their original constitution parts of a local university, are now situated in the chief centers of population in the several academies (18 since 1868,) into which, for educational administration, the 86 departments (into which the whole of France is divided for civil purposes,) are grouped. Although each faculty is not represented in any one center, except in the Academy of Paris and Strasbourg, there are a sufficient number of each, with an adequate teaching force, at convenient* localities, to meet in the main, the demands of the population; and where there is not, large towns are authorized, under certain guarantees of build. ings and salary, to establish auxiliary colleges of superior instruction. Each faculty has its own halls for lectures and material equipment of instruction, its dean, professors, and teachers of different grades, varying in different academies, but all equipped to teach physics, chemistry, mathematics, and natural history. Each academy, embracing several faculties, has its own rector, council, and inspector, and all are subordinate to the Minister of Publie Instruction, who, since 1824, has performed all the functions of the headmaster of the University. (2.) The faculty of letters, of which there is one in each academy district, has a varying teaching force; in Paris, elểven full professors, four adjunct professors, and several associates, or fellows, who are candidates for vacant chairs, and in the smaller academy centres, not half this number; but in each faculty, provision is made for philosophy, history, ancient literature and modern literature, both French and foreign. The faculty of sciences, of which there is one in each academy, possesses, in Paris, seventeen full professors, and seven associate teachers of different grades, and in less populous centers, from five to six chairs. Instruction in pure and applied mathematics, physics, chemistry, geology, mineralogy, and other natural sciences, must be given in all. (3.) Theologyt has seven seats of faculties, five for the Catholics and two for the Protestants. The seats of the two Protestant faculties are Montauban and Stras * This portion of the French System of Public Instruction is treated in its historical development and present detail of organization, studies, professors, methods, discipline, degrees, &c., in the Special Treatise on Universities and other Institutions of Superior Instruction in Different Countries. ↑ We follow, in this summary, Prof. Arnold in his chapter on Superior Instruction in Schools and Universities on the Continent. burg. The chairs of these faculties are nowhere more than seven or fewer than five. The subjects common to them all are dogmatic theology, ecclesiastical history, and (I here use the French titles) éloquence sacrée, and morale évangélique. The faculty of theology, which has in all 42 chairs, is the least important of all the faculties in France, because the Church of Rome does not recognize its decrees, and they have no canonical validity. Of course, for those who aspire to be professors in this faculty, its degrees and attendance at its lectures are indispensable; and by an ordinance of the Government of 1830 its degrees are required for all ecclesiastical preferment down to the post of curé de chef-lieu de canton inclusive. (4.) Law has eleven seats of faculties, with 98 chairs. The great chairs in this faculty are those for the Code Napoléon, Roman law, civil procedure, commercial law, administrative law. The Code Napoléon has to itself six chairs at Paris and three in each of the other ten seats of faculties. Two of these ten, Nancy and Douai, have been recently added, and the reader may like to know how an additional faculty, when wanted, is provided. The town of Nancy, already the seat of an academy, of a faculty of sciences, and of a faculty of letters, desired a faculty of law also, Lorraine having formerly, under its old sovereigns, possessed one. The State agreed to establish one there, the municipality of Nancy undertaking on its part to raise every year and pay to the treasury a sum reimbursing the State for its outlay on the new faculty, its professors, agrégés, and courses of lectures. Douai got its faculty of law on the same terms. The State gives the character of a national institution, the guarantee of publicly appointed teachers, and the privilege of conferring degrees; and the town is abundantly willing to pay for this. No one in France can practice as a barrister (avocat) without the degree of licentiate of law. No one can practice as a solicitor (avoué) without the certificat de capacité en droit. A licentiate of law must first have got the degree of bachelor of law. To get this he must have the degree of bachelor of letters, have then attended two years' lectures in a faculty of law and undergone two examinations, one in Justinian's Institutes, the other in the Code Napoléon, the Penal Code, and the Codes of Civil Procedure and Criminal Instruction. Dues for lectures, examinations, and the diploma, make the diploma of bachelor of law cost, when the candidate has obtained it, nearly 251. The new bachelor must then, in order to become licentiate, follow a third year's lectures in a faculty of law, undergo two more examinations, the first on the Institutes of Justinian again, the second on the Code Napolion, the Code of Commerce, and adminis trative law, and must support theses on questions of Roman and French Law. The degree of licentiate costs 241. A solicitor, to obtain the certificate of capacity in law,' must for one year have attended lectures in a faculty of law, embracing in this one year both the first and the second year's course of lectures on the Code Napoléon, and on Civil and Criminal Procedure, and undergoing an examination on the subject of each course. The cost of this certificate, all fees for lectures, &c., included, is from 11 to 127. The professors in the faculty of law are men eminent in the knowledge of their several branches. (5.) Medicine has three great seats of faculties, with 61 chairs. The faculties are at Paris, Montpellier, and Strasburg. To be a physician or surgeon in France, a man must have the diploma of doctor either in medicine or in surgery. To obtain this, he must have attended four years' lectures in a faculty of medicine, and had two years' practice in a hospital. When he presents himself for the first year's lectures, he must produce the diploma of bachelor of letters; when for the third, that of bachelor of sciences, a certain portion of the mathematics generally required for this degree being in his case cut away. He must pass eight examinations, and at the end of his course he must support a thesis before his faculty. His diploma, by the time he gets it, has cost him a little over 501. A medical man with a doctor's degree may practise throughout France. To practise without it, a man must have the diploma of officier de santé. To practise without the diploma either of doctor or of officier de santé is penal. The officier de santé must have attended three years' lectures in a faculty, and had two years' practice in a hospital, and he must pass five examinations and write a paper bearing on one of the subjects of his instruction. Before he can be admitted to attend lectures in a faculty of medicine he must produce a certificat d'examen de grammaire, a sort of minor bachelor of arts degree, turning on the matters taught in quatrième, the highest class in the grammar division of the lycées. Thus his having learnt some Latin and Greek is rendered necessary. Is diploma costs him altogether about 321, but it only authorizes him to practise in the department where he has been received officier de santé, and he may not perform any great operation except in the presence of a doctor. A kind of branch of the faculties of m dicine is formed by the Écoles supérieures de Pharmacie, three in number, with nineteen chairs. These schools, too, are at Paris, Montpellier, and Strasburg. Chemistry, toxicology, pharmacy, and natural history are the main matters of instruction. For medicine and pharmacy there are, as for sciences and letters, auxiliary schools, (Écoles préparatoires de médecine et de pharmacie,) in twenty-two large towns of France, with professors only a grade below the faculty professors, with lectures allowed to count, to a certain extent, as faculty lectures, and with the right of examining for some of the lower diplomas and granting them. No one can practise as a druggist or apothecary in France without getting either a first or a second class diploma. A first class diploma necessitates three years' study in an Ecole supérieure de Pharmacie, three years' practise with a regularly authorized apothecary, and the passing eight examinations, the last of which cannot be passed before the age of twenty-five. The cost of obtaining this diploma comes to nearly 561. A pharmacien with this first class diploma may practise anywhere in France. A second class d'ploma only entitles its holder to practise in the department chosen by him when he entered his name for lectures. But to hold this second class diploma he must have attended faculty lectures for one or two years, have practised six or f ur years with a regular pharmacien, and passed four or five examinations, for the last of which he must be twenty-five years old. The candidate for the first class diploma must have the degree of bachelor of sciences before he can enter himself to follow the lectures of the pharmacy school; the candidate for the second class diploma must have the certificat d'examen de grummaire mentioned a o.e. In Paris the seat of the faculties of theology, sciences, and letters is at the Sortonne; of the faculty of medicine, at the Ecole de Médecine; of that of law, at the École de Droit. There are eight inspectors of superior instruction,-four for letters, four for sciences, one for medicine, and one for law. Six of the eight are members of the Institute, and in 1865, were: M. Ravaisson, M. Nisard, M. Dumas (the chemist), M. Le Verrier, M. Brongniart, and M. Charles Giraud. Their salary, like that of the faculty professors in Paris, is 12,000 francs a year, a high salary for France; and the post of inspector-general and professor of superior instruction form a valuable body of prizes for science and literature. Each faculty has an aggregation, similar in plan to that which exists for the professors of secondary instruction already described; but, for aggregation in a faculty, very high and complete studies are necessary. In general, the course of promotion is this: the intending agrégé first obtains the degree of doctor in his faculty; after being admitted agrégé he becomes assistant professor, and finally full professor. A full faculty professor must be thirty years old. The Dean of Faculty is chosen by the Minister of Public Instruction from among the professors of his faculty. While the minister has power to dismiss of his own authority the functionaries of secondary instruction, those of superior instruction can only be dismissed by imperial decree. The faculties have also the right of proposing candidates for their vacant chairs, though the Emperor, who nominates, is not bound to adopt their proposal. (6.) Outside the faculties are a number of important State-establishments, all of them contributing to what may be called the higher instruction of the country. The most remarkable of these is the College of France, founded at the Renaissance, to make up, one may say, for the short-comings of the medieval universities, and which has grown in scale, value, and consideration till it now has thirty-one professors, covering with their instruction all the most important provinces of human culture, and many of them among the most distinguished men in France. The École des Charts, the pupils of which have labored so fruitfully among the archives of France and the early documents of her history, has seven professors. The Museum of Natural History has sixteen. The School of Living Oriental Languages has nine. The School of Athens is designed to give to the most promising of the young professors, from the age of about twenty-five to thirty, of French public instruction, the opportunity of for two years studying on the spot the language and antiquities of Greece. All these establishments, with the Bureau des Longitudes, and the public libraries of the capital, are under the Minister of Public Instruction. Other ministers have special schools attached to their department. The Minister of War has thus the Polytechnic, Saint Cyr, and the Cavalry School of Saumar; the Minister of Marine has the Naval School and the Schools of Hydrography; the Minister of Finance has the School of Woodcraft (École forestière); the Minister of the Household has the School of Fine Arts; the Minister of Agriculture, Commerce, and Public Works Is the Schools of Agriculture, the Veterinary Schools, the Schools of Arts and Trades, the Central School of Arts and Manufactures, the School of Commerce, the Schools of Mines and Miners, and the Ecole Impériale des Ponts et Chaussées. The grants to the Institute and to the Academy of Medicine (a sort of medical institute) come into the estimates of the Minister of Public Instruction. Into his estimates come also all grants, whether for pensions, gratuities, missions, publications, or subscriptions, which fall under the head of grants for literature, science, and art. For 1865, these grants amounted to 680,000 fr. (27,200l.). The grants to the Institute and Academy of Medicine, grants which really come under the same category as the preceding, amounted to above 26,000l. more. (7.) In 1868, the Minister of Public Instruction announced that the laboratories in the Museum of Natural History, the Sorbonne, and School of Medicine had been greatly enlarged and better equipped for the purposes of instruction, and that means had been furnished by the Corps Legislatif to construct new laboratories of original research, in which eminent professors would assure the perpetuity of scientific progress, by training a limited number of pupils, already the recipients of the best knowledge, to the art of observation and the method of experimentation. To the instruction given in the University Faculties, the College of France, the Museum of Natural History, and the Special Schools, was added in 1867, a Practical School of Superior Studies, in which instruction is given in: 1. Mathematics; 2. Natural Philosophy and Physics; 8. Natural History and Physiology; 4. Historical Studies and Philological Science. Each section is under a special director, and the whole scheme is administered by a general Director and a superior Council. No conditions as to age, sex, or nationality, are prescribed, but all applicants must pass a probationary stage of three months, before they are reg istered as regular students. (8.) A scheme for the reorganization of Superior Instruction, has been matured by the Minister of Public Instruction, after an examination of the Universities of other countries, and particularly of Germany and Great Britain, by which the principle of liberty as regards persons, subjects, and methods in each Faculty is established; the faculties of theology are removed from the general system; a new faculty, that of Economic and Administrative Science, is added; scholarships in aid of sons of those who have deserved well of the State in military or civil service are instituted; each Faculty elects its own dean, and the deans and one professor of each faculty compose a General Council of Superior Instruction. |