trifling present, was not disposed to write, as though feeling hurt at writing on demiasses; when, however, he offered a sufficient present, he composed the poem

Hail! Daughters of the generous Horse,
That skim, like wind, along the course, etc.

-Harris.

and yet they were daughters of asses as well. Again, it is possible to express the selfsame thing diminutively. And it is the employment of diminutives which renders both good and evil less; just as Aristophanes jests in «The Babylonians »; using, instead of gold, "a tiny piece of gold"; instead of "a garment,» «a little garment"; instead of "reproach," "puny reproach"; and instead of "sickness,» «slight indisposition." We ought, however, to be careful, and always keep to the mean in both cases.

Style will possess the quality of being in good taste, if it be expressive at once of feeling and character, and in proportion to the subject-matter. This proportion, however, is preserved, provided the style be neither careless on questions of dignity, nor dignified on such as are mean: neither to a mean word let ornament be superadded; otherwise it appears mere burlesque.

But [the style] expressive of feeling, supposing the case be one of assault, is the style of a man in a passion; if, however, it be one of loathsomeness and impiety, the expressing yourself with disgust and painful caution; if, however, the case demand praise, with exultation; if pity, with submission; and so on in the other cases. And a style which is appropriate, moreover, invests the subject with persuasive efficacy. For the mind is cheated into a persuasion, that the orator is speaking with sincerity, because under such circumstances men stand affected in that manner. So that people suppose things to be even as the speaker states them, what though, in reality, they are not: and the hearer has a kindred feeling with the orator, who expresses himself feelingly, even should he say nothing to the purpose; availing themselves of which, may bear down their hearers in the storm of passion.

TH

THE PARTS AND ARRANGEMENT OF A SPEECH

HE parts of a speech are two; for it is necessary to state the case about which it is, and to prove it. Wherefore for one, after stating, not to prove it, or to proceed to prove it without a previous statement, is out of the question: for whoever proves, proves something; and he who makes a previous statement makes such statement with a view to proving it subsequently. And of these parts, the one is the statement, the other the proof; just as though one were to make a division into problem and demonstration. But the divisions which they now usually make are ridiculous; for narration is a kind of peculiarity to judicial speeches alone; for how can there, in demonstrative and deliberative speeches, be any narration such as they speak of, or any reply, confutation of an adversary, or any peroration of points selected for display of character?

But exordium, contrast of argument, and recapitulation, do then only occur in deliberative speeches when an altercation happens; for, considered as accusation and defense, they frequently [admit these branches], but not in their character of a piece of advice. But the peroration, moreover, is not an essential of every judicial; for instance, if the speech be a short one, or the case easy to be remembered. For it is usual to detract only from what is prolix. The necessary divisions, then, are the statement and the proof.

The essential divisions then are these; but the greatest number are, exordium, statement, proof, peroration. The confutation of an adversary belongs to the proof; and the contrast of arguments is an amplification of one's own, so as to be a kind of branch of the proof; for one who does this proves something: but not so either exordium or peroration; but [the latter] refreshes the recollection.

But should one draw distinctions with regard to these, that will be the case which the followers of Theodorus used to do, there will be a narration distinct from post-narration, and pre-narration, together with refutation, and post-refutation. But the writer should affix a title only after marking out a distinct species and difference, otherwise it becomes mere emptiness and trifling; just like Licymnius, who in his treatise gives the titles, irruption-digression — ramifications, etc.

N°

OF THE EXORDIUM

ow the exordium is the commencement of the speech; which in poetry is the prologue, and in the performances on the pipe, the prelude: for these are all commencements, and, as it were, an opening of the way for what is to succeed.

The prelude, then, corresponds to the exordium of demonstrative speeches; for the performers on the pipe, using as a prelude any piece whatever which they are able to execute with skill, connect the whole by an inserted passage: and so in demonstrative speeches ought we to write; for the speaker ought, after stating whatever he lists, straightway to employ the insertion, and link it [to the body of the speech]. Which, indeed, all do, having as their model the exordium of the Helen of Isocrates: for there exists no very near connection between Helen and the artifices of sophists. At the same time, if the exordium be out of the way of the subject, there is this advantage, that the whole speech is not of one uniform character. But the exordia of demonstrative speeches are derived from praise, or from blame (like Gorgias in the Olympic oration,-"Men worthy, O Greeks, of admiration among many »; for he is eulogizing those who instituted the general assemblies: Isocrates, however, blames them, "because they distinguish by prizes the excellencies of person, while for those who are wise they propose no reward"); and thirdly from suggesting advice; for instance, «— - because it is fitting to honor the good," on that account [the orator] himself also speaks the praises of Aristides, or such characters as neither enjoy reputation, nor are worthless, but as many as, though they be excellent persons, are obscure; just as was Paris, the son of Priam: for thus the orator conveys advice. Again [we may borrow demonstrative exordia] from those proper to judicial rhetoric, i. e., from appeals to the auditor, in case the speech be respecting any thing revolting to opinion, or difficult, or already noised abroad among many, so as to obtain his pardon: as Chorilus begins, "Now after everything has become public.»

The exordia, then, of demonstrative rhetoric arise from these sources,— from praise, blame, exhortation, dissuasion, and appeals to the hearers. The inserted connective clauses may be either foreign or appropriate to the subject.

With regard to the exordia of judicial rhetoric, we must assume that they are equivalent to the opening scenes of dramas, and the exordia of epic poems; for the commencement of dithyrambic poetry resembles demonstrative exordia,- "on account of thee, thy gifts, thy spoils." But in the drama, and in epic poetry, the commencement is an intimation of the subject, that the hearer may foresee what the story is about, and that his mind may not be in suspense; for whatever is indeterminate

bewilders us. He then who puts, as it were, into the hand the beginning of the clew, causes him who holds it to follow on the story. On this account we have,

"Sing, muse, the wrath," etc.

"The man, O muse, resound,” etc.

"This too declare; from Asia's coasts afar,
How upon Europe burst the mighty war."

And the tragedians give some insight into the plot of the drama, if not forthwith, as Euripides does, yet they give it somewhere at least in the opening scene; just as also does Sophocles: -"Polybus was my father!" And comedy in the same way. The most necessary business of the exordium, and this is peculiar to it, is to throw some light on the end for the sake of which the speech is made. For which very reason, if this be evident, and the case a brief one, we need not employ an exordium. The other species which speakers employ are correctives, and general: these are, however, deduced from 1. The speaker himself; 2. his hearer; 3. the subject; 4. and from the adversary. Everything whatsoever which refers to the doing away or the casting an aspersion of character has a relation to oneself or the adversary. But these things are not done exactly in the same way: for by one speaking on a defense, whatever tends to aspersion of character should be put first; but by one who is laying an accusation, in his peroration. And the reason why is not indistinct; for it is necessary that one who is making a defense, when he is about to introduce himself, should sweep away every stumbling-block; so that the prepossession against you must first be removed: by him, however, who raises the unfavorable impression, let it be raised in winding up, in order that the judges may the rather recollect it.

The correctives, however, which refer to the hearer, are drawn out of conciliating his good-will, and inflaming him with anger, and occasionally from attracting his attention, or the reverse; for it is not at all times convenient to render him attentive, for which reason many endeavor to induce them to laughter. But all these will conduce to tractability [on the judge's part], if one wishes it, as does also the showing oneself a person of character; for to such do people the rather give heed. But men are attentive to objects of importance, of a peculiar description, or deserving admiration, or pleasing. Hence we ought to throw in a hint that the speech is concerning subjects of this nature. But if you would have them not attentive, hint that the matter is trifling, concerns them not, or is disgusting. But it ought not to escape our observation, that the whole of this is foreign to the subject; for they are addressed to a hearer of sorry taste, and one who lends an ear to points foreign to the subject; for if the hearer be not of this character, there is no need of exordium, except so far as to state the matter summarily, that, like a body, it may have a head.

Again, the business of exciting attention is common to all the divisions of a speech, wherever it may be necessary; for the audience relax their attention anywhere rather than at the beginning. For which reason it is ridiculous to range this head at the beginning, when more particularly every one is at the summit of attention. So that, whenever it is convenient, we may use the formulary, "Lend me your whole attention, for the question does not affect me any more than yourselves"; and this one,-"for I will relate to you a thing so strange, so wonderful, as you never yet heard." But this is just what Prodicus says he used to do,- "whenever the audience happen to nod, to insert, by the bye, a display of his pentecontadrachmial demonstration." But that these things are referred to the hearer not in

his proper capacity as such, is evident; for all create unfavorable impressions or do them away in their exordia: as, "O king, I confess, indeed, that not with haste,» etc.; and again, "Why such long preludes?»

They, too, employ exordia who have, or appear to have, the worse case; for it is better to pause anywhere than on the case itself. On which account servants tell not what is asked them, but all the circumstances, and make long preambles.

But the means out of which we must conciliate have been stated, and each other point of that nature: and, as it is well remarked by the poet, "Grant that I may reach the Phœacians a friend and object of their compassion"; we ought, therefore, to aim at these two objects. And in demonstrative orations, you should cause the hearer to suppose that he is praised simultaneously with the subject, either in his own person or his family, or in his maxims of conduct, or at least somehow or other. For true it is, as Socrates remarks, that "To praise Athenians before an Athenian audience is no difficult thing, however it may be in the presence of Lacedæmonians.» But the exordia of deliberative rhetoric are derived from those of judicial: but this species has them naturally least of all the three; for indeed the audience are aware of the subject; and the case needs no exordium except 1. on account of the speaker himself; 2. or his opponent; or 3. if the audience conceive of the importance of the matter otherwise than he could wish, thinking it either too serious or too trifling; with a view to which objects respectively there is a necessity for either exciting or doing away a prejudice, or for amplification or diminution. On account of these things there is need of exordium; 4. or otherwise for the sake of ornament; since without it a speech appears hastily got up. Of this sort was the panegyric of Gorgias on the Eleans; for without anything like the preluding display of gesture and attitude in the Gymnasium, he begins forthwith,-"O Elis, city blest by fortune!»

I'

OF THE NARRATION OR STATEMENT

N DEMONSTRATIVE speeches the narration is not given in continuity, but in scattered portions; for one must go over the actions out of which the speech arises: for a speech is a kind of compound, having one portion, indeed, independent of art, [since the speaker is not at all the cause of the actions themselves,] and another portion originating in art; and this last is either the showing that it is fact should it be incredible, or such either in character or degree, or in showing all these points at once. Owing to this, there are times when one ought not to narrate every fact successively; because this mode of exposition is difficult to remember. From some, then, establish the character for courage, from others for wisdom, and from others for justice. The one style of narration is too simple; the other has the grace of variety, and is not so void of elegance. But you have only to awaken the recollection of facts well known; on which account, many subjects will stand in no need of narration: supposing, for instance, you would praise Achilles, because all are acquainted with his actions; but you must employ them at once. But in praising Critias, an orator must narrate; for not many are acquainted with his exploits.

But now people tell us, ridiculously enough, that the narration should be rapid. And yet I would say, as did one to a baker, who inquired "whether he should knead his bread hard or soft,» — «What," said he, "is it then impossible to knead it properly?" And so here [in rhetoric a mean is to be observed]. For one should not narrate at too great length, just as he should not make too long an exordium, nor state his proofs [too fully]. For neither in this case does propriety consist

either in rapidity or conciseness, but in a mean betwixt both: and this is the stating just so much as will make the matter clear, or as will cause one to conceive that it has taken place, or that the party has inflicted hurt, or committed injustice, or that the case is of that importance which the speaker wishes to establish; and to the opposite party the opposite points will avail. And an orator should narrate, by the bye, such incidents as conduce to his own excellence: thus, "I all along used to instruct them in what was just, bidding them not to abandon their children," or, to the villainy of the other party;- "-but he replied to me, that wherever he might be, he should have other children.» Which, Herodotus says, was the reply of the Egyptians on their revolting. Or whatever is pleasing to the judges.

In the case of a defendant, the matter will be more brief; the points for dispute being, either that it has not taken place, or is not hurtful, or not unjust, or not of such importance. So that on acknowledged points he need not pause, unless they conduce in some degree to the objects suggested; e. g., if the fact be acknowledged, but its injustice disputed. Moreover, you should mention as already done those things which, in the course of being done, failed of producing pity or horror. The story of Alcinous is an instance, which is despatched to Penelope in sixty verses. And as Phäyllus does in the circle, and the opening scene of the "Eneus." The narration should also convey a notion of the character: this will be secured, if we know what gives rise to the moral character. One source is the manifestation of deliberate choice; and of what kind is moral character we ascertain from knowing of what kind this is; and of what kind the deliberate choice is, from being acquainted with its proposed end. Hence the doctrines of mathematics have no display of character, for neither have they deliberate choice; and this for that they have not the influence of motive: but the Socratic discourses [have this display], for they treat concerning subjects of this kind. But those things convey a notion of character, which is consequent upon the several characters; e. g., "Whilst saying this he began to hasten off"; for this manifests a hardihood and rusticity of character. And be cautious not to speak coldly as from the understanding merely, as orators do nowadays, but as though from the deliberate choice. "I, for I wished and deliberately preferred this; and if I profit nothing by it, then it is the more honorable": for the one is characteristic of a prudent, the other of a good man: since [the proposed end] of the prudent consists in pursuing the expedient; of a good man, in pursuing what is honorable. And should any circumstance be incredible, you must subjoin the reason; as Sophocles does. He furnishes an example in the "Antigone," that she mourned more for her brother than for a husband or children; for these, if lost, might again be hers.

"But father now and mother both being lost,

A brother's name can ne'er be hail'd again."

But if you should have no reason to offer, then avow "that you are well aware that you speak what exceeds belief, but that such is your nature": for the world discredits a man's doing anything voluntarily, except what is expedient.

Again, draw your remarks out of those things which are indicative of the passions; narrating both their attendant circumstances, and those which the audience know, and which attach peculiarly either to the speaker himself or his adversary: -"He, having scowled at me, departed." And as Eschines said of Cratylus, "that whistling and snapping his fingers-: " for they have a tendency to persuade: therefore these things which they know become indices of that which they do not know. Such instances one may get in abundance out of Homer:

"Thus Penelope