Photomicrographs of the most representative hairs and wools used in the textile industries.

Prior to the mechanical era wool was combed immediately after scouring; there was no preparatory process. As a matter of fact the first combing process took the place of the processes Combing just described and was termed 'straightening," the "combing proper" following. Prior to the invention of a really satisfactory mechanical comb, between 1850 and 1860, the combing operation was the limitation of the worsted trade. English wools could be satisfactorily combed by hand, and perhaps the results of combing botany or fine wools by hand were satisfactory so far as quality of result was concerned, but the cost was largely prohibitive. The history of the colonial wool trade is inextricably bound up with the combing industry. How eventually botany wools were combed by machinery and how the wool industry was thereby revolutionized can only be briefly referred to here. About 1779 Dr Edmund Cartwright invented two distinct types of combs, the vertical and the horizontal circular. The former type was developed on the continent by Heilmann and others, and has only within the last five years taken its rightful place as a successful short wool comb in this country. The latter type was worked upon by Donisthorpe, Noble, Lister, the Holdens and others, and largely through the "driving force of Lister (later Lord Masham) was made a truly practical success about the year 1850. Latter-day combs of this type may be readily grouped under three heads. The Lister or "nip" comb is specially suitable for long wools and mohair and alpaca. The Holden or square-motion comb is specially suited for short and very good quality wools. The last type, the Noble, is the most popular of all and, by a change of large and small circles, may be adapted to the combing of long, medium or short wools. As the great bulk of crossbred and a considerable proportion of botany wool is combed upon the Noble comb a brief description is here called for. The object of all wool combing is to straighten the long fibres and to comb out from the slivers treated all the fibres under a certain length, leaving the long fibres or "top" to form the sliver which is eventually spun into the worsted yarn. The Noble comb, which so effectually accomplishes this, consists in the main of a large revolving circle A inside which revolve two smaller circles B, B' as shown in fig. 12, each of which touches the larger comb circle at one point only. At this point the slivers of wool to be carded are firmly dabbed into the pins of both the large and small circles. As the circles continue to revolve

and G', shown here in plan, which draw them out, thus separating them from the short fibres. There are at least four pairs of drawing-off rollers in a comb, and the fibres drawn off by each-be it noted continuously-are united to form a sliver which is passed through a

FIG. 13.-Section of Wool Drawing Rollers. A, A' are the back-rollers in a drawing box of which A is positively driven and A' driven by friction which may be varied at will. Carriers B, B', B simply control the fibres of which the sliver is composed during drafting. The front rollers C, C-of which C is positively driven and C driven by friction-running at a greater speed than A, A' draft or elongate the slivers as required. The carriers B, B', B" should be speeded to run at a suitable rate to assist the drafting operation, more by support than by direct aid. Rollers A, A' must hold the sliver, hence they are fluted. Rollers C, C' must pull the sliver somewhat severely, hence roller C' is covered with leather. The yarn delivered by the front rollers is slightly twisted and wound into a double-headed bobbin of convenient size on the flyer-system."

FIG. 14.-Two-Spindle Drawing-Box.

revolving funnel into a can. The short fibres, or "noil," are lifted out of the pins of the small circle by "noil knives." The continuous slivers, the ends of which remain in the pins of the large circle after the drawing-off rollers have been passed, are now lifted up until these ends are above the pins, at the same time an additional length of sliver being drawn into the comb, so that, as they reach the second small circle, they are ready to be again dabbed into the pins of both circles and the combing operation repeated. Thus the combing on a Noble comb is absolutely continuous. All the movements of this machine with the exception, of the dabbing-brush motion-are circular, so that mechanically it is an almost perfect machine. As illustrating the extent of the combing industry, it is interesting to note that even the making of dabbing-brushes is a separate and by no means unimportant trade.

After combing it is usual to pass the "top" through two gill-boxes termed "finishers." The last of these boxes, and often the first, delivers the "top" in the form of a ball, thus it is often spoken of as a" balling gill-box." This stage marks one of the great divisions of the worsted trade, the comber taking the wool up to this point, but now handing it forward in the shape of top to the worsted spinner," who draws and spins the slivers into the most desirable worsted yarns. English tops are usually prepared for spinning by seven or eight operations. Three of these operations are effected in gill-boxes of a somewhat similar type to the preparing-box, only lighter Drawing. in build. The remaining four are drawing-boxes, i.c. as shown in figs. 13 and 14, they consist of back and front rollers with small carrying-rollers not gills-to support the wool in between. Thus an English set of drawing usually consists of a single-can gillbox, a double-can gill-box, a two-spindle gill-box, a four-spindle drawing-box, a four-spindle weigh-box, a six-spindle drawing-box, two six-spindle finishers and three thirty-spindle rovers. About fifteen flyer frames of 160 spindles each will be required to follow this set, although the balance varies partly in accordance with the counts spun to, in this case 1/32's English being the standard.

As the drafts markedly preponderate over the doublings, so in exactly this proportion will the sliver be reduced in thickness. The flyer spinning frame is very similar to the drawing frame, consisting of back rollers, carriers and front rollers, with the necessary twist into the yarn and to wind it Spinning. Spindle and flyer to upon the bobbin. From the two-spindle gill-box to the spinning frame the spindle, bobbin and flyer combination is employed with the object just mentioned. From fig. 15 the action of this combination will be clearly understood. Drafting takes place as usual between the back and front rollers, the carriers controlling the yarn between the two. On emerging from the front rollers the yarn usually passes through an eyelet, to centre it over the centre of the spindle, it then takes a turn or two round the flyer leg, through the twizzle or eyelet on the flyer and on to the bobbin F. The flyer may be freely rotated by means of the wharl J and through the spindle G upon the top of which it is screwed. The bobbin fits loosely over the spindle and rests upon the lifter plate I; this latter, being controlled by the lifter mechanism, slowly raises and lowers the bobbin during the "spin" past the fixed plane of delivery of the yarn, i.e. the eyelet of the revolving flyer. Now, if for one moment it be considered that the bobbin may not revolve on the spindle but may be

D

mediam

worsted

the operation of carding. On first thought it might be imagined that carding would result in broken fibres and a poor yield of top. That this is not so is evident from the fact that there is a tendency to card wools from 7 to 10 in. long, this Carding of tendency being due to the relative cheapness of carding as compared with preparing. If long wools were fed directly and short on to a swift, no doubt serious breakage of fibre would occur, but it is customary to place before the first swift yards. of a worsted card a series of four opening rollers and dividers-with their accompanying "burring rollers "-to open out the wool gradually, so that when it eventually reaches the first swift it is so opened out that further opening out instead of breakage occurs. Some carders use a breast or small swift in place of those opening rollers-mostly on account of economy The swift is usually surmounted with four workers and strippers and is very similar to the woollen carder, save that the workers and doffer are larger, thereby effecting more of a combing action and working economically by reason of the greater wearing surface brought into play As botany wool is usually brought directly from the wash bowl to the feed sheet of the card, it is usual to clothe the first cylinders with galvanized wire clothing.

K

FIG. 15.-Section of
Flyer Spindle.

C, C'are the front rollers of a drawing or spinning frame, delivering the sliver to a centring board D, containing an eye for each sliver, from which the sliver passes to the flyer E and finally to the bobbin F, which rests on the lifter-plate I and is traversed up and down by this plate according to the length of bobbinemployed. The flyer E is screwed on to the spindle G which is suitably held by the sheath, bolster, &c., shown at H, and in the footstep at K. The spindle is turned by a tape passing round the wharl Jand thence to an ordinary tin-drum.

slid up and down by the lifter motion, then, if the front rollers deliver the necessary yarn, the flyer will wrap it in successive layers upon the bobbin-but no twist will be inserted. On the other hand, if the bobbin is perfectly free upon the spindle and the front rollers cease delivering yarn, then the flyer, by means of the yarn, will pull the bobbin round at the same speed as it goes itself, and the yarn will be twisted but not wound upon the bobbin. By obtaining an action in between these two extremes both twisting and winding on to the bobbin is effected. The speed of the bobbin is suitably retarded by washers placed between it and the lifter plate, so that it just drags sufficiently to wind up the yarn "paid out" by the front rollers. The turns per inch are in proportion to the yarn delivered and the revolutions of the flyer. Thus if, while 1 in. of yarn is delivered, the flyer revolves twelve times the turns per inch will be approximately twelve. This in brief is the theory of the spindle, flyer and bobbin

action.

Wools not more than 7 in. long are usually prepared for combing by

through two finisher-boxes, the last of which "balls" the tops ready for marketing.

Drawing

and

Short wools are drawn and spun on very similar lines to the longer wools, save that the boxes are more in number and are in some cases lighter in build. The boxes usually employed in a botany set are as follows: two double-head can gill-boxes, two two-spindle gill-boxes, a four-spindle drawing-box, a sixspindle weigh-box, an eight-spindle drawing-box,two eightspinning spindle finishing-boxes, two twenty-four-spindle second finishers three thirty-two-spindle dandy reducers, ten thirty-two-spindle dandy rovers, with ten two-hundred-spindle cap spinners to follow.

The doublings as a rule are about 7, 6, 6, 6, 5, 5, 5. 4. 4. 2 and the drafts 5, 6, 6, 7, 7, 7, 8, 8, 8 at the respective boxes, an endeavour as a rule being made to obtain a roving of which 40 yds. 2 drams, as this is the most convenient size for being spun into fine botany count of

to positively control the driving and speed of both flyer and bobbin in all the drawing frames of such sets as that described above. Such control is usually effected by a pair of cones, from which this system has taken its name, viz. "cone" drawing. In fig. 16 a usual type of cone drawing-box is illustrated. The chief advantages of this system seem to be the possibilities of employing larger bobbins, and thus obtaining greater production, the consumption of relatively less power, and more particularly the production of a softer sliver with less twist, partaking more of the character of a French roving. Spinning is usually effected upon the cap frame (see fig. 17)-a frame in which the bobbin, resting upon a fixed spindle, is itself

E

c'

FIG. 17-Section of Cap

Spindle.

driven at say 5000 revolutions per minute to put in the twist, while the friction of the yarn on the cap which covers the bobbin enables the bobbin to wind up upon itself the yarn as delivered by the front rollers. The weakness and the strength of the cap frame is that to make reasonably hard bobbins the bobbins must be driven at a high speed.

The French are noted for a special system of worsted spinning, which, producing soft botany yarns of a French marked type, is worthy of drawing more than passing comment. and The preparation is spinalag. very similar to the preparation of botany yarns for the English system save that as a rule the order of the operations are carding, gilling, combing, back-washing and finishing. The characteristic features of the method lie in the subsequent drawing and spinning. The drawing-box as shown in fig. 18 consists of back rollers, porcupine or re volving gill, front rollers, rubbers and winding-up arrangement. Thus there is no twist inserted, the slivers being treated softly and openly right away through the processes. A set of this type usually consists of two gill-boxes preparing for combing, comb, back-washing machine and two finishing gill-boxes, first drawing frame, second drawing frame, the slubbing frame, the roving frame and the celf-acting mule. After leaving the last box as a fine soft pith-like sliver, spinning is effected upon the worsted mule. The main differences between the worsted and the woollen mule are firstly, the worsted mule is fitted with preliminary drafting rollers, and secondly, there is little or no spindle draft. As the mule is an intermittent worker it is natural to contrast it with the cap frame, which runs continuously. What the real advantage is it is difficult to say, but the mulespun worsted yarn trade is becoming yearly of more importance, and it is pleasing to note that English spinners are at last doing a fair share of this business.

C, C'are the front rollers of a cap spinning frame delivering the yarn through the centring board D under the edge of the cap E to the bobbin F, which rests upon the tube and wharlG, Doubling, to twofold them and somewhich in turn rest upon the twisting, times to three- and fourfold lifter-rail I, which effects etc. them. Again the fashion somethe necessary traversing. times runs upon fancy twists, The spindle H is simply and then it is necessary to be able to screwed into the frame- produce the various styles of cloud, loop, work, and does not re- curl, knop, &c., yarns. Twofolding is volve, but simply acts as done upon the flyer, cap and ring frames. a support for the cap and The main difference between the cap as a centre of motion for and the ring frame is that in the latter the tube and bobbin. a small bent piece of wire, termed a traveller, revolved round a ring by the pull of the spindle through the yarn, serves as the retarder to enable the bobbin to wind the yarn, delivered by the front rollers on to itself (see fig. 19). Fancy twisters are almost universally on the ring system. Yarns are placed on the market in eight forms, viz. in hank, on spools, on paper tubes, on bobbins, on cops, in cheeses, in the warp ball form and dressed upon the loom beam. Thus the manufacturer can order the yarn which he requires in the form best suited to his purpose. Although in some few cases special means must be employed for he weaving of woollens, worsteds and stuff goods, still the main Weaving. principles are the same for all classes of goods (see WEAVING). Attention may here be concentrated on the characteristic principles of woollen and worsted manufacture.

Upon whichever system the yarns have been spun it will frequently be necessary

Yards.

The characteristic feature of wool and of wool yarns and cloths is the quality of "felting." This quality has always been made use of in woollen cloths, but in worsted cloths, until compara- Finishing tively recently, it has been largely ignored. To-day, processes. however, cloths are made, ranging from the truest woollen to the typical worsted, of which it would be impossible to indicate the type of yarn employed without very careful analysis. As it is obviously impossible to give here every variety of finish G

E

B

FIG. 18.-Section of French Drawing-Box.

A, A', delivery rollers which control the slivers during the drafting operation. B is the porcupine (or circular gill) and C are the front drafting rollers. D is the funnel through which the slivers pass to the consolidating rubbers E, E, F is a second funnel and G is the condensed sliver wound up at a uniform rate on the roller H. employed, the two typical styles for woollen and worsted cloths are dealt with in detail, and further to elucidate the matter the finishing of a Bradford "stuff" or "lustre" piece is also given in outline.

Woollen

cloth

The fabric on leaving the loom is first mended and then scoured. The operation of scouring is effected in a "dolly," and must thoroughly clear the piece so that it is free to take the desired finish. The piece is now soaped and "milled," i.e. felted. Milling may be effected either in the stocks or in finishing. the milling machine. The stocks, the main features of which are huge hammers which are caused to fall or are driven positively into the cloth, exert a bursting action eliminating the thread structure. The milling machine acts more by compression, arrangements being made to compress the cloth in length or breadth at will. After milling scouring follows to clear the cloth thoroughly of the milling agents previous to the finishing proper. The cloth is now taken in a damp state to the tentering machine and, being hooked upon a frame running into a heated chamber, is stretched in width and dried in this condition. Raising foliows, this being effected by subjecting the surface of the fabric to the action of

44

Elevation

D

Plan

B

"teazles " fixed on a large revolving cylinder, the whole machine being termed a gig." After raising the fabric is cropped by being passed over a blade near which revolving knives work, on the principle of a lawn-mower, shearing and levelling the piece. Sometimes fabrics are raised wet, especially if a velvet finish is required. Brush- FIG. 19.-Section of Ring Spindle. ing follows to clear the A is the spindle suitably shaped to repicce of all stray fibres. ceive the bobbin at B, with a wharl for The fabric is now ready turning at C, running in the specially for "crabbing,' which designed receptacle D, which may be consists in winding it screwed firmly into the spindle rail. The tightly on to a perforated traveller E is drawn round the ring F by roller through which the spindle acting through the yarn as steam may be blown or shown in the plan. The spindle is a upon which the piece fixture and the ring-rail is traversed to may be boiled. The distribute the yarn on the bobbin. pieces are then rewound

and the operation repeated at least once, to obtain even distribution of finish. Being now ready for pressing, the fabric is cuttled, usually with press papers between each cuttle, and placed in the hydraulic