ESCHWEGE, the head town of a circle in the district | Abundant supplies of berroqueña, a granite-like stone, of Cassel, province of Hesse-Nassau, Prussia, is situated were obtained in the neighborhood, and for rarer materials on the Werra, and on the Bebra-Friedland railway, about the resources of both the Old and the New World were 28 miles south-east of Cassel. It consists of the old town put under contribution. The death of Toledo in 1567 on the left bank of the Werra, the new town on the right threatened a fatal blow at the satisfactory completion of bank, and Brückenhausen on a small island connected with the enterprise, but a worthy successor was found in Juan the old and new town by bridges. It is a thriving manu- Herrera, Toledo's favorite pupil, who adhered in the main facturing town, its chief industries being leather-making, to his master's designs. On September 13, 1584, the last yarn-spinning, cotton- and linen-weaving, the manufacture stone of the masonry was laid, and the works were brought of liquors and oil, and glue- and soap-boiling. It has two to a termination in 1593. Each successive occupant of the ancient buildings, the Nicholas tower, built in 1455, and Spanish throne has done something, however slight, to the the old castle. The population of Eschwege in 1875 was restoration or adornment of Philip's convent-palace, and 7724. Ferdinand did so much in this way that he has been called a second founder. In all its principal features, however, the Escorial remains what it was made by the genius of Toledo and Herrera working out the grand, if abnormal, desires of their dark-souled master, ESCHWEILER, a town of Rhenish Prussia, in the government district of Aix-la-chapelle, is situated on the Inde, and on the Berg-Mark railway, about 8 miles E.N.E. from Aix-la-chapelle. It possesses three large iron-rolling mills, and among its other industries are the manufacture of iron and tin wares, muslins, needles, and wire. In the neighborhood are some very valuable coal mines. The population in 1875 was 15,540. ESCOBAR Y MENDOZA, ANTONIO (1589-1669), a Spanish casuist, was a descendant of the illustrious house of Mendoza, and was born at Valladolid in 1589. He was educated by the Jesuits, and at the age of fifteen took the habit of that order. He soon became a famous preacher, and his facility was so great that for 50 years he preached daily, and sometimes twice a day. Notwithstanding his constant oratorical efforts, he was a voluminous writer, and published altogether forty vols. in folio. His first literary efforts were Latin verses in praise of St. Ignatius Loyola and the Virgin Mary; but he is best known as a writer on casuistry. His principal works are-Summula Casuum Conscientia, several Scripture commentaries, Liber Theologia moralis. and Universa Theologia moralis Problemata. The first mentioned of these was severely criticised by Pascal in the fifth and sixth of his Provincial Letters, as tending to inculcate a loose system of morality. It contains the famous maxim that purity of intention may be a justification of actions which are contrary to the moral code and to human laws; and its general tendency is to find excuses for the majority of human frailties. His doctrines were disapproved of by many Catholics, and were mildly condemned by Rome. They were also ridiculed in witty verses by Molière, Boileau, and La Fontaine, and gradually the name Escobar came to be used in France as a synonym for a person who is adroit in making the rules of morality harmonize with his own interests. Notwithstanding the apparent looseness of his moral teaching, Escobar is said to have been simple in his habits, a strict observer of the rules of his order, and unweariedly zealous in his efforts to reform the lives of those with whom he had to deal. He died 4th July, 1669. ESCORIAL, or, as the name is not unfrequently given, ESCURIAL, one of the most remarkable buildings in Europe, comprising at once a convent, a church, a palace, and a mausoleum. It is situated on the south-eastern versant of the Sierra de Guadarrama, on the borders of New Castile, about 27 miles N.W. of Madrid, and immediately to the north of the railway between Madrid and Avila. Its latitude is 40° 35′ N., its longitude 4° 1′ W., and its height above the sea 3500 feet. The surrounding country is a sterile and gloomy wilderness exposed to the cold and blighting blasts of the Sierra. According to the usual tradition, which there seems no sufficient reason to reject, the Escorial owes its existence to a vow made by Philip II. of Spain shortly after the battle of St. Quentin, in which his forces succeeded in routing the army of France. The day of the victory, August 10, 1557, was sacred to St. Laurence, and accordingly the building was dedicated to that saint and received the title of El real Monasterio de San Lorenzo del Escorial. The last distinctive epithet was derived from the little hamlet in the vicinity which furnished shelter, not only to the workmen, but to the monks of St. Jerome who were afterwards to be in possession of the monastery; and the hamlet itself is generally but perhaps erroneously supposed to be indebted for its name to the scorice or dross of certain old iron mines. The preparation of the plans and the superintendence of the work were entrusted by the king to Juan Bautista de Toledo, a Spanish architect who had received most of his professional education in Italy. The first stone was laid in April, 1563; and under the king's personal inspection the work rapidly advanced. The ground plan of the building is said to occupy an area of 396,782 square feet, and the total area of all the stories would form a causeway one metre in breadth and 95 miles in length. There are seven towers, fifteen gateways, and, according to Los Santos, no fewer than 12,000 windows and doors. The general arrangement is shown by the plan on page 478. Entering by the main entrance the visitor finds himself in an atrium, called the Court of the Kings (Patio de los Reyes) from the statues of the kings of Judah, by Juan Bautista Monegro, which adorn the façade of the church. The sides of the atrium are unfortunately occupied by plain ungainly buildings five stories in height, awkwardly accommodating themselves to the upward slope of the ground. Of the grandeur of the church itself, however, there can be no question: it is the finest portion of the whole Escorial, and, according to Fergusson, deserves to rank as one of the great Renaissance churches of Europe. It is about 340 feet from east to west by 200 from north to south, and thus occupies an area of about 70,000 square feet. The dome is 60 feet in diameter, and its height at the centre is about 320 feet. In glaring contrast to the bold and simple forms of the architecture, which belongs to the Doric style, were the bronze and marbles and pictures of the high altar, the masterpiece of the Milanese Giacomo Trezzo, almost ruined by the French. Directly under the altar is situated the pantheon or royal mausoleum, a richly decorated octagonal chamber with upwards of twenty niches, occupied by black marble urnas or sarcophagi, kept sacred for the dust of kings or mothers of kings. There are the remains of Charles V., of Philip II., and of all their successors on the Spanish throne down to Ferdinand VII., with the exception of Philip V. and Ferdinand VI. Several of the sarcophagi are still empty. For the other members of the royal family there is a separate vault, known as the Panteon de los Infantes, or more familiarly by the dreadfully suggestive name of El Pudridero. The most interesting room in the palace is Philip II.'s cell, from which through an opening in the wall he could see the celebration of mass while too ill to leave his bed. The library, situated above the principal portico, was at one time one of the richest in Europe, comprising the king's own collection, the extensive bequest of Diego de Mendoza, Philip's ambassador to Rome, the spoils of the emperor of Morocco, Muley Zidan, and various contributions from convents, churches, and cities. It suffered greatly in the fire of 1671, and has since been impoverished by plunder and neglect. Among its curiosities still extant are an ancient Koran, a Virgil of the 10th century, an Apocalypse of the 14th, El libro de los juegos de Ajedrez, or "Book of the Games of Chess," by Alphonso the Wise, and the original Alcalá ordinance. Of the Arabic manuscripts which it contained in the 17th century a catalogue was given in Hottinger's Promptuarium sive Bibliotheca Orientalis, and another in the 18th, in Casiri's Bibliotheca Arabico-Hispanica, 2 vols., Madrid, 1760-70. Of the artistic treasures with which the Escorial was gradually enriched, it is sufficient to mention the frescoes of Peregrin Tibaldi, Carbajal, Bartolome Carducho, and Lucas Jordan, and the pictures of Claudio Coello, Titian, Tintoretto, Van der Weide, and Velasquez. Many of those that are movable have been transferred to Madrid, and many others have perished by fire or sack. The conflagration of 1671, already mentioned, raged for fifteen days, and only the church, a part of the palace, and two towers escaped uninjured. In 1808 the whole building was exposed to the ravages of the French soldiers under Houssaye. On the night of the 1st of October, 1872, the college and seminary, a part of the palace, and the upper library were devastated by fire; but the damage occasioned by this has in great measure been repaired. The reader will find a remarkable description of the emotional influence of the Escorial in Quinet's Vacances en Espagne; and for historical and architectural details he may consult the following works:-Fray Juan de San Geronimo, Memorias sobre la Fundacion del Escorial y su Fabrica, in the Coleccion de Documentos ineditos para la Historia de España, vol. vii.; Herrera, Sumario y Breve Declaracion de los Diseños y Estam pas de la Fab. de S. Lorenzo del Escorial, Madrid, 1589; José de Siguenza, Historia de la Orden de San Geronymo, Madrid, 1590, etc.; Cabrera, Felipe Segundo, 1619; James Wadsworth, Further Observations of the English Spanish Pilgrime, London, 1629, 1630; Ilario Mazzorali de Cremona, Le reali grandezze del Escuriale, Bologna, 1648; De los Santos, Descripcion del real monasterio, etc., Madrid, 1657; Andres Ximenes, Descripcion, etc., Madrid, 1764; Quevedo, Historia del Real Monasterio, etc., Madrid, 1849; Rotondo, Hist. artistica, etc., del monasterio de San Lorenzo, Madrid, 1856-1861; Prescott, Life of Philip II.; Mrs. Pitt Byrne, Cosas de España, 1866; Fergusson, Hist. of the Modern Styles of Architecture, 1873. they have maintained in all subsequent English trans- are in favor or the former view; but Keil has the influen lations. On the other hand, they do not occur in the tial support of Schürer (in Herzog's Encyklopädie, i. 497, Complutensian polyglot (1514-17); they were wholly ex- 1877) in the latter opinion. It is uncertain where he wrote. cluded from the canon by the Council of Trent (1546); Egypt and Palestine have both been suggested, but without nor did they appear in the Sixtine edition of the Vulgate adequate data for a definite conclusion. Whoever he was (1590). They were printed, however, in the Clementine he had a good command of Greek, nor was he ignorant of edition of 1592, along with the Prayer of Manasseh, though Hebrew. As for the date of the work, all we know is that merely as an appendix, and with a preface to explain that it was already in existence and in repute in the time of they were permitted thus to appear only because they had Josephus. That historian has unfortunately followed its been occasionally referred to by the fathers, and had found order of events in preference to that of the canonical Chrontheir way into some Latin Bibles both written and printed. icler, and so has brought his narrative into inextricable Though associated thus closely in the vicissitudes of their confusion in all that relates to the Persian period. later history, they have no such intimate relationship to one another as is suggested by their names. They differ widely in age, origin, theological interest, literary and historical importance, and must accordingly be treated as entirely separate works. 1 ESDRAS, the Liber tertius Esdræ of the Vulgate and the thirty-nine Articles, is entitled in the Codex Vaticanus and in modern editions of the LXX. "Eodpas a', but in the Codex Alexandrinus simply & iɛpeus. With the exception of chaps. i., iv., and v. 1-6, it is a mere compilation from the canonical work Chronicles-Ezra-Nehemiah. Chap. i., which gives an account of the celebration of the passover under Josiah, and then continues the history to the destruction of Jerusalem in 588 B.C., follows verse by verse the narrative of 2 Ch. xxxv. 1-xxxvi. 21. There are, indeed, numerous verbal discrepancies, which show that the writer had before him a Hebrew text somewhat different from that which we now possess, or else that he made use of a Greek version other than the Alexandrian. Some times, too, he may seem to have deliberately abridged or expanded the text that lay before him; but the fact that on the whole he depended on the Chronicler must be abundantly manifest to any reader, and needs not be demonstrated here. The whole of the canonical book of Ezra is next incorporated, but with an interpolation and a dislocation. Chap. ii. 1-14, telling of the edict of Cyrus and the return of the Jews under "Samanassar or "Sanabassar," closely follows Ezra i. In like manner, chap. ii. 15-25, telling how the works at Jerusalem were interrupted by the interdict of Artaxerxes, though introduced at an earlier stage in the narrative, is entirely derived from Ezra iv. 7-24. Chap. iii. 1-v. 6, relating how the young Zerubbabel gained the ear of Darius, and successfully reminded him of a forgotten vow to rebuild Jerusalem and the temple, and to restore the holy vessels and permit the return of the citizens to their places, is, as has already been indicated, either an original contribution or one derived from some source which is no longer accessible to us. Chap. v. 7-70, containing the list of those who returned with Zerubbabel under "Darius," with an account of the progress of the temple under "Cyrus," and of the subsequent interruption "for the space of two years," until the reign of "Darius," is derived from Ezra ii. 1-iv. 5. Chaps. vi. and vii., corresponding to Ezra v. and vi., relate how the work was resumed under Darius, and completed in the sixth year of his reign. Chap. viii. 1-ix. 36 repeats the narrative of Ezra vii.-X., and chap. ix. 37-55 that of Neh. vii. 73–viii. 13. The abruptness which characterizes the book as we now have it, both in its beginning and at its close, suggests the idea that possibly it may be merely a fragment of some larger compilation to which reference is perhaps made in 2 Macc. ii. 13. In its present form it has little to distinguish it as a composition from the work of the Chronicler, of which it is virtually an incomplete abridgment. The special object which the compiler may have had in view is indeed not easily conjectured. Some writers think they can discover a two-fold purpose-to give prominence to the new story about Zerubbabel, and to remove chronological difficulties which are raised by the canonical book of Ezra. If the latter was indeed part of his aim, he has been singularly unsuccessful. Far from obviating any of the difficulty caused by the Chronicler's having apparently introduced Artaxerxes Longimanus and Xerxes between Cyrus and Darius Hystaspis, he has landed himself in new and glaring inconsistencies (comp. e.g., ii. 10, 14, with iv. 44). A more likely hypothesis is that his design was to give to the public something more readable than the bald and literal Alexandrian translation. Critics are not unanimous upon the question whether he took his work directly from the Hebrew or from the present LXX. version. The majority Unmistakable references to the work as authoritative are to be met with in Clement of Alexandria, in Cyprian, in Athanasius, and in Augustine (De. Civ. Dei, xviii. 36). Jerome, on the other hand, in his preface to Ezra and Nehemiah (which is to be found in all modern editions of the Vulgate), has condemned both books of Esdras as "somnia" and "procul abjicienda." It does not occur in any list either of canonical or of "ecclesiastical" writings. Nor does its place in the Alexandrian canon seem to have been altogether undisputed. For it does not occur in all Latin Bibles presumably derived from the LXX.; and towards the beginning of the 16th century it was believed not to exist at all in Greek, so rare had it become. 2 ESDRAS, the liber quartus Esdræ of the Vulgate (Ezra, Nehemiah, and 1 Esdras being the other three), was origi nally written in Greek, and probably entitled aroκáhvis Eodpa (so Fritzsche; but Hilgenfeld argues for 'Elpas & poohrns). With the exception of inconsiderable fragments, the original (Greek) text has been lost; but numerous ancient translations still testify to the wide-spread popularity which the work enjoyed during the earlier centuries of the Christian era. Five distinct versions are now known to scholars,-the Latin, Syriac, Ethiopic, Arabic, and Armenian. Of these the Latin is the oldest and the best. In most of its MSS., and in all the eastern versions, the first two and the last two chapters of the received Vulgate text are omitted; and eighty-three verses are inserted between vii. 35 and vii. 36. The genuineness of these verses cannot be doubted; they were known to Ambrose, Vigilantius, and Jerome, and in 1875 were rediscovered by Bensly in a MS. of the 9th century. The four chapters just mentioned Fritzsche proposes to call the fifth book of Ezra. They are certainly distinct from the original 2 Esdras, and are by general consent assigned to a Christian authorship of or near the 3d century. The apocalyptic character of 2 Esdras has already been indicated (vol. ii. p. 154-5). Its seven visions all have reference to the future of Jerusalem, the central question being whether and when the city is to be restored and its enemies punished. The fifth vision (xi. 1-xii. 51) is of chief importance to the critic; his conclusions upon the date and origin of the book must depend almost entirely upon his interpretation of the symbolical eagle, the wings, the feathers, and the heads there described. According to Laurence, C. J. van der Vlis and Lücke (2d edition), the vision is to be explained as having reference to the whole course of Roman history from Romulus to Julius Cæsar. The three heads are Sulla, Pompey, and Caesar; and th work was composed about the time of the assassination of the last-named. Hilgenfeld, in his earlier interpretation of the vision (1857), referred it to the Ptolemies; but in 1867 he substituted the Seleucide, while adhering to his original opinion that the three heads are Caesar, Antony, and Octavian, and that the work was written immediately after the death of Antony. The majority of modern critics believe that Rome under the empire is intended; but there are numerous differences as to the details of this interpretation. Gutschmid and some others identify the three heads with Septimius Severus, Caracalla, and Geta, thus placing the date of the composition of this part of the work as late as the year 218 A.D. But the more general opinion since 1 Unless by & Toμýv or Pastor of Athanasius (Epistola festalis), Hugo a 8. Caro, and others this book be meant. But it is more probable that the "Shepherd" of Hermas is intended. See De Wette Schrader Einl., sec. 31, note b. By Augustine's" Esdræ libri duo" (De Doctr. Chr. ii. 8) we are probably to understand our Ezra and Nehemiah; but compare De Civ. Dei, 1.c. secundus." In the Syriac, Arabic, and Ethiopic versions it is styled Though it begins there with the words "Liber Esdræ prophets the first of Ezra. In the Armenian it is the third. Ewald is almost alone in claiming for it a Hebrew original (Gesch vil. 69). See also Derenbourg, Revue critique for 1876, p. 182. Gutschmid agrees with Hilgenfeld as to the date of the rest✔ the work. ESHER--ESKIMO. Corrodi (1781) has been that the three Flayian emperors, | As upon the question of date, so upon the question of By the author of the epistle of Barnabas (chap. xii.), by Clement of Alexandria (Strom. iii. 16), by Tertullian (De hab. mul., 3), and by Ambrose (De Bono Mortis, chap. x.-xii.), 2 Esdras is referred to as prophetic Scripture. The unfavorable judgment of Jerome upon both books of Esdras is on the other hand repeated with special emphasis with regard to this in his treatise against Vigilantius. The work was never included in any list of canonical or "ecclesiastical" writings, nor did it generally appear in MS. Latin Bibles. It was printed, however, in Pfister's Bamberg Latin Bible (1460), and frequently thereafter. To this circumstance, doubtless, it owes its somewhat too high position, both in the Protestant and in the Romish Apocrypha. It may be interesting to notice that Columbus drew from chap. vi. 42 one of the arguments by which he supported his cause in the conference of Salamanca in 1487 (Navarrete, Coleccion, ii. 261). It cannot be doubted that 2 Esdras has exercised considerable influence on the course of Christian thought, especially on eschatological subjects; but in cases of real coincidence between its teaching and that of Paul, the honor of priority is now very generally conceded to the canonical writer. The work is of great authority in some Oriental churches; and it has been a special favorite with many Western mystics, such as Schwenkfeld and the once famous Antoinette Bourignon. Tischendorf, in his Apocalypses Apocrypha, prints a Greek Apocalypse of Esdras, which is to be distinguished from 2 Esdras. It seems to date from the 3d century of the Christian era, and to belong originally to the Christian cycle (see vol. ii. P. 157). The best commentary on 1 Esdras is that of O. F. Fritzche in the Exegetisches Handbuch (Leipsic, 1851). See also his critical edition of the text Libri apocryphi Veteris Testamenti grace cum commentario critico (Leipsic, 1871); De Wette-Schrader, Einleitung, sects. 363-4 (1869); Schürer in Herzog's Encyklopädie, i. 496 (1877).—There have been several critical editions of the Latin text of 2 Esdras, the earliest having been those of Fabricius (1741) and Sabatier (1751). Laurence was the first editor of the Ethiopic version (Oxford, 1820), Ewald of the Arabic (Göttingen, 1863), and Ceriani of the Syriac (Milan, 1868). The Vatican codex of the Arabic has now for the first time been edited by Gildemeister (Bonn, 1877). The Armenian is to be found in the Armenian Bible (Venice, 1805). The latest editions of the Latin are those of Hilgenfeld (1869) and of O. F. Fritzche (Libri Apocryphi, as above). A good account of the work, with an almost exhaustive catalogue of the modern literature of the subject, is given by Schürer in his Neutestamentliche Zeitgeschichte (Leipsic, 1874). In 1875 Benely published the results of an examination of the Amiens MS., which dates from the 9th century. The missing fragment has also been found in a Spanish MS. (see Cambridge Journal of Philology, 1877). See also Renan, Les Évangiles (Paris, 1877), and Drummond, The Jewish Messiah, (London, 1878). ESHER, a village and parish in the county of Surrey, (J. S. BL.) England, is situated about 15 miles S.W. of London. Near it is Claremont Palace (built by the great Lord Clive), formerly the residence of the Princess Charlotte, and more recently of Louis Philippe and his family. Of the mansion house of Esher, in which Cardinal Wolsey resided for three or four weeks after his sudden fall from power in 1529, only the gate-house now remains. A new mansion was erected in 1803. Esher church contains some fine memor ials, and one of its three bells is said to have been brought from San Domingo by Sir Francis Drake. The population of the parish in 1871 was 1815. of Mazanderan, about 50 miles west of Astrabad, and 5 Gen.-Lieut. Johann von Blaramberg, 1874, quoted in Peter- in the sanjak of Rustchuk, about 22 miles west of Shumla, von Eski Djumaia im Mai, 1876, von s. Exc. Gr. Edmund Zechy, See Hilberg, Nach Eski Djumaia, mit Bericht über die Messe Vienna, 1876. Södermanland, and district of Nykoping, on the Hjelmar-Aa, ESKILSTUNA, a town of Sweden in the government of which unites Lake Hjelmar with Lake Malar. It is the principal centre of Swedish manufacturing industry, possessing a royal musket-factory, engineering works, cutlery establishments, needle factories, dye-works, and tanneries. The place is mentioned in the 13th century, and is said to who suffered martyrdom and was buried on the spot. derive its name from an English missionary called Eskil bestowed on it considerable privileges, and gave the first impulse to its manufacturing activity. Population 6130. rose into importance in the reign of Charles X, who It "The by European ethnologists to a large number of cognate but ESKIMO, ESKIMOS, or ESQUIMAUX, the name applied widely separated tribes, which are scattered along the coasts of the arctic regions of America and Asia. The Danish form of the word has recently supplanted the older French form. The name is a corruption of the Abenaki Indian Eskimatsic or the Ojibwa Askimeg, both terms meaning "those who eat raw flesh." The native name is Innuit-a word signifying, as names of savage tribes frequently do, people." The Eskimo constitute a very homogeneous race, and are the widest spread aboriginal people in the world. They are entirely unknown in Europe, being confined to the arctic coast of America, and a small portion of the Asiatic shore of Behring Strait. On the American shores they are found, in broken tribes, from East Greenland to the western shores of Alaska,-never far off the coast, or south of the region where the winter ice allows seals to congregate in large numbers. They thus stretch for 3200 miles from S.E. to S.W.; and though in all likelihood they have little intercourse with each other, yet, judging from the traditions, the separate tribes must have maintained their present characteristic language and mode of life for at least remote period. The N.W. American Coast Indians, whose 1000 years. Most probably, like the rest of the aborigines of the New World, they came from Asia at some very modes of life are much the same as the Eskimo, bear a striking resemblance to them in appearance. The Eskimo the banks of the great rivers which flow into the Polar Ocean, and were gradually driven seaward by the more may thus have been fishing Indians, who formerly lived on southern Indians, against whom they to this day maintain a violent enmity. In the course of their migrations they arrived in Grinnell Land, crossed Smith Sound, not further | The skin has generally a "bacony" feel, and when cleaned north than Cape Union, according to Nares, then advanced of the smoke, grease, and other dirt-the accumulation of gradually southward along the west coast of Greenland, which varies according to the age of the individual-is only doubled Cape Farewell, and spread up the east coast as far so slightly brown that red shows in the cheeks of the north as man has yet reached. They may have rounded, children and young women. The people soon age, howwith the musk ox and the lemming, the north end of ever. Their hands and feet are small and well formed, and, Greenland, but the probabilities are in the direction indi- as a rule, they have a more pleasing appearance than all cated. Even on hunting expeditions they rarely withdraw except the best-looking Indian tribes. The women and more than 20 miles from the coast, and only in very excep- children dress entirely in skins of the seal, reindeer, bear, tional cases 30 miles. Save a slight admixture of European dog, or even fox, the first two being, however, the most settlers, they are the only inhabitants of both sides of Davis common. The men and women's dress is much the same. Strait and Baffin's Bay. They extend as far south as about The jacket of the men has a hood, which in cold weather 50° N. lat. on the eastern side of America and in the west is used to cover the head, leaving only the face exposed; to 60° on the eastern shore of Behring Strait, while 55° to it must be drawn over the head, as it has no opening in 60° are their southern limits on the shore of Hudson's Bay. front or behind. The women's jacket has a fur-lined Throughout all this range no other tribes intervene, except "amowt" or large hood for carrying a child, and an absurd in two small spots on the coast of Western America, where looking tail behind, which is, however, usually tucked up. the Kennayan and Ugalenze Indians come down to the The trousers are either tight or loose, and are fastened into shore for the purpose of fishing. The Aleutians are closely boots made of prepared seal skin, very ingeniously and allied to the Eskimo in habits and language, though their neatly made. The women's trousers are usually ornamented culture is somewhat more highly developed. Rink divides with eider duck necks, or embroidery of native dyed them into the following groups, the most eastern of which leather; their boots, which are of white leather, or (in would have to travel nearly 5000 miles to reach the most Greenland) dyed of various colors, reach over the knees, western. 1. The East Greenland Eskimo, few in number, and in some tribes are very wide at the top, thus giving every year advancing further south, and having intercourse them an awkward appearance and a clumsy waddling walk. with the next section. 2. The West Greenlanders, civilized, In winter there are two suits of clothes of this description, living under the Danish crown, and extending from Cape one with the hair inside, the other with it outside. They Farewell to 74° N. lat. 3. The Northernmost Greenlanders also sometimes wear shirts of bird-skins, and stockings of -the Arctic Highlanders of Ross-confined to Smith, dog, or young reindeer skins. The boots require to be Whale, Murchison, and Wolstenholme Sounds, north of the changed when wet, otherwise they would freeze hard in Melville Bay glaciers, not extending to the western shores cold weather. Their clothes are like all the Eskimo artiof the former strait, nor within the memory of man having | cles of dress or tools, very neatly made, fit beautifully, and any intercourse with those south of them. They are very are sewn with "sinew-thread," with a bone needle if a steel isolated, have greatly decreased of late years, did not until one cannot be had. In person the Eskimo are usually filthy, recently possess the kayak or skin-covered canoe, the umiak water not often coming in contact with them unless accior open skin boat, or the bow and arrow, are bold hunters, dentally. The children when very young are, however, pagans, and are perhaps the most typical of the Eskimo in sometimes cleaned by being licked with their mother's Greenland; they have not of recent years greatly decreased, tongue before being put into the bag of feathers which though at present they do not number more than 200.1 serves as their bed, cradle, and blankets. 4. The Labrador Eskimo, mostly civilized. 5. The Eskimo of the middle regions, occupying the coasts from Hudson's Bay to Barter Island, beyond Mackenzie River-perhaps comparatively a rather heterogeneous group, inhabiting a stretch of country 2000 miles in length and 800 in breadth. 6. The Western Eskimo, from Barter Island to the western limits in America. They differ somewhat from the other groups in various habits, such as the use of the baidar or double-manned skin-covered canoe, in the clothing of the men, in their labrets, and in the head-dress of the women. They are allied to the Aleutians and the Indians of Alaska. 7. The Asiatic Eskimo or Tuski, who are again nearly allied to the Namollo and Itelmes. None of the Arctic tribes of Europe or Asia have the slightest connection with them. Of all the Eskimo those of Greenland and Labrador are the best known; the others are known but partially. Appearance and Dress.-The Eskimo are not so small as they are usually represented, their height-5 feet 4 inches to 5 feet 10 inches, and in rare cases even 6 feet-being quite up to the average of the coast Indians. Their dress, however, gives them a dwarfish appearance. Both men and women are muscular and active, the former often inclining to embonpoint, and both having a pleasing, goodhumored, and, not unfrequently, even handsome cast of countenance, apt to break into a "grin" on very small provocation. The face is broadly oval, flat, with fat cheeks; forehead not high, and rather retreating; teeth good, though, owing to the character of the food, worn down to the gums in old age; nose very flat; eyes rather obliquely set, small, black, and bright; head largish, and covered with coarse black hair, which the women fasten up into a top-knot on their crown, and the men clip in front and allow to hang loose and unkempt behind. Their skulls are of the mesocephalic type, the height being greater than the breadth; according to Davis, 75 is the index of the latter and 77 of the former. Some of the tribes slightly compress the skulls of their new-born children laterally (Hall), but this practice is a very local one. The men have usually a slight moustache, but no whiskers, and rarely any beard. 1 A party of Eskimo from the western side of Smith Sound, about Cape Isabella, crossed over in a umiak and five kayaks, about five years before the survivors of the crew of the "Polaris" wintered there in 1872-3. They introduced the use of the bow and arrow, Dwellings, Occupations, Characteristic Implements, and Food.-In summer the Eskimo live in conical skin tents, and in winter usually in half-underground huts (igloos) built of stone, turf, earth, and bones, entered by a long tunnel-like passage, which can only be traversed on all fours. Sometimes, if residing temporarily at a place, they will erect neat round huts of blocks of snow with a sheet of ice for a window. These, however, though comfortable in the winter, become damp and dripping in the spring, and are then deserted. In the roof are deposited their spare harpoons, etc.; and from it is suspended the steatite basin-like lamp, the flame of which, the wick being of moss, serves as fire and light. On one side of the hut is the bench which is used as sofa, seats, and common sleeping place. The floor is usually very filthy, a pool of blood or a dead seal being often to be seen there. Ventilation is almost non-existent; and after the lamp has blazed for some time, the family having assembled, the heat is all but unbearable: the upper garment must be taken off, and the unaccustomed visitor gasps half asphyxiated in the mephitic atmosphere. In the summer the wolfish-looking dogs lie outside on the roofs of the huts, in the winter in the tunnel-like passage just outside the family apartment. The Western Eskimo build their houses chiefly of planks, merely covered on the outside with green turf. The same Eskimo have, in the more populous places, a public room for meetings. "Council chambers" are also said to exist in Labrador, but are only known in Greenland by tradition. Sometimes in South Greenland and in the Western Eskimo country the houses are made to accommodate several families, but as a rule each family has a house to itself. The Eskimo are solely hunters and fishers, and derive most of their subsistence from the sea. Their country will allow of no cultivation worth attending to; and beyond a few berries, roots, etc., they use no vegetable food. They are essentially sarcophagous. The seal, the reindeer when obtainable, and various cetaceous animals supply the bulk of their food, as well as their clothing, light, fuel, and frequently also, when driftwood is scarce or unavailable, the material for various articles of domestic economy. The shuttle-shaped canoe or kayak, covered with hairless seal-skin stretched on a wooden or whalebone frame, with only a hole in the centre for the paddler, is one of the most characteristic Eskimo implements. The paddler propels it |