do not interfere with the ruling power in the hands of the Kshattriyas. The monarchs are in full possession of despotic power, and are used by the priests to hold their rule. The Brahmans draw up the customs of family law, marriage and inheritance, of the rights and duties of the castes. The new system is not universally adopted. Even on the Ganges some districts resisted the new system and held to their ancient laws and customs. In the Indus only a few regions followed the development.

800 The territory of the Jumna and Ganges has become the "Sacred Land." 800-600 Era of development of Indian philosophy. The people give themselves to the study of worship and dogma under the Brahmanic system.

800 The dynasty of Pradyota succeeds the Barhadrathas on the throne of Magadha.

The rulers of this and the other kingdoms are thorough despots who oppress their people greatly and force severe taxes and exactions from them.

665 The Saisunaga dynasty succeeds the Pradyota on the throne of Magadha.

The first two kings are Kshemadharman and Bhattya.

603 Bimbisara succeeds to the throne.

In his reign justice, morals, and religion are regulated in Magadha and neighbouring states, according to the Brahmanic system.

560 Birth of Prince Sarvathasiddha (Siddartha) son of Suddhodana, king of the petty principality of Kapilavastu.

He belonged to the race of the Sakyas, which had emigrated from the delta of the Indus to the land of the Kosalas.

550 Ajatasatru succeeds Bimbisara-is said to have put him to death. Prasenajit, twenty-third ruler of the Kosalas after the great war, is their king and rules at Sravasti, a new city they had built to the north of Ajodhya, the ancient capital.

Vatsa, son of Satanika, the twenty-fifth successor of Parikshit, is king of the Bharatas (Panchalas-Pandus) at their new capital Kausambi. The life of these kings is one of great magnificence and luxury. Their palaces are gorgeous and their harems numerous.

540 According to Arrian, Cyrus the Great reaches the Indus on his march. This has never been substantiated, though it is probable that he compelled the nations on the right bank of the river to pay tribute when he reached Gedrosia (Baluchistan).

532 Renunciation of the world by Siddartha.

522 He begins to preach his doctrines at Varanasi (Benares). He is henceforth known as Buddha "the Enlightened. He preaches the reformed doctrine known as Buddhism. It points out a way of escape from the terrible consequences of the Brahmanical system by the suppression of desire. It ends in the negation of existenceNirvana.

It does not thrive in India owing to its abstractness and morbid views of life as well as by the competition of Sivaism and Vishnuism. But in modified form it has flourished in Afghanistan, Tibet, and China.

519 Udayabhadra murders his father, Ajatasatru, and succeeds him. 512 Darius subjugates the tribes on the right bank of the Indus north of the Kabul. In the reorganisation of the Persian empire, the terri

tory becomes a satrapy, and is said to have paid the highest tribute in the whole empire. The Persian dominion does not seem to have had any deep influence on the life of the Aryans, and it is uncertain whether it continued until the coming of Alexander the Great. 503 Anuruddhaka murders his father Udayabhadra and succeeds him. 495 Nagadasaka murders his father Anuruddhaka, and succeeds him. 480 Death of Buddha.

471 Nagadasaka is dethroned by the people and Sisunaga, a son of Ajatasatru, formerly a vassal king of the Vrijis, is put in his place.

453 Kalasoka, his son, succeeds him. He leaves the capital Rajagriha for a new one he has built - Pataliputra (the Palibothra of Megasthenes) at the confluence of the Sonu and Ganges.

After the reign of Ajatasatru the kings of Magadha increase their power and dominions, and the states to the north and west of Magadha gradually become a part of that kingdom.

450 The Pandu dynasty of Bharata comes to an end, whereby the Panchalas and Surasenas become subject to the king of Magadha.

500-400 The conquests and emigrations of the Aryans extend to the Deccan and Ceylon.

340

The pearls and coral found in these localities give a new impetus to trade.

425 Kalasoka is succeeded by three sons, ruling in succession. 403 Nanda, the head of a robber band, organises an army, attacks and captures Pataliputra, murders Pinjamakha the king, and ascends the throne. He and his descendants keeping the kingdom intact, reign until 340, when Dasasiddhika is murdered by his wife's paramour, Indradatta, who puts his son Dhanananda on the throne. This king is the Xandrames or Agrames of Greek writers, and his realm is called the kingdom of the Prasians (Prachyas or Gangarides). He is said to have acquired great wealth, and kept an enormous army. The power of Magadha is at its height.

327 Alexander the Great begins the conquest of the Aryans on the right bank of the Indus. He captures Pushkala after a siege of thirty days and overpowers the Gandarians.

After a stubborn resistance, the Asvakas (the Assacanes, Aspasians, or
Hippasians of the Greeks) are subjugated during the winter.

326 Early in the year Alexander prepares to cross the Indus.

Mophis, the ruler of Takahasila (Greek Taxiles), surrenders without resistance. The king of Kashmir sends his brother to announce submission, and several smaller princes come in person to give homage. Alexander advances to the Vitasta (Hydaspes, modern Jhelum) river, and meets the army of King Porus, whose territory extends to the Asikni. Porus has been promised the assistance of the king of Kashmir, in spite of the latter's submission to the Macedonian. Before this help arrives Alexander defeats Porus, but restores him to his throne and increases his power by assigning him some conquered territory. The king of Kashmir now comes in person to give homage. The Asvakas revolt and the Khattias, assisted by the Kshudrakas and Malavas, make stubborn resistance, but all are subdued. Other princes submit. The Agalassians are severely defeated.

325 Alexander sails up the Asikni to the Indus. The tribes of the Punjab and Indus are easily reduced.

The principalities on the Lower Indus are seized without difficulty. Alexander fortifies the conquered territory and establishes satrapies. In August he returns to Persia with eighty thousand men. In September, Nearchus sails for Persia with the fleet. After Alexander's departure Philippus, the satrap of the Punjab, is murdered by mutinous mercenaries. Eudemus and Mophis of Takshasila are made temporary satraps.

323 June 11, death of Alexander.

321 Antipater appoints Peithon satrap of Upper India, and Porus of the Lower Indus. Murder of Porus by Eudemus.

320 This crime instigates Chandra Gupta (Sandrocottus), a man of humble origin, probably a native of the Punjab, to arouse his countrymen against the Greeks. They flock to his standard.

317 Chandra Gupta expels the satraps from the land of the Indus. He proceeds against the kingdom of Magadha.

315 Conquest of Magadha by Chandra Gupta. Dhanananda probably

slain.

312 He ascends the throne of Magadha. Beginning of the Maurya dynasty. 305 Seleucus attempts to re-establish Greek supremacy in the Punjab and Indus valley. He encounters army of Chandra Gupta, is forced to make an unfavourable treaty and alliance with him.

300 Changes have been introduced into the Brahmanic system through the influence of Buddhism. Vishnu (the preserver) and Siva (the destroyer) form a trilogy with Brahma (the creator). There is a liberation from regeneration.

291 Death of Chandra Gupta. His son Vindusara succeeds. He keeps up the kingdom. Megasthenes is the ambassador of Seleucus at the court of Magadha.

263 Asoka" the Buddhist Constantine," son of Vindusara, succeeds to the throne of Magadha.

256-254 Treaty with Antiochus Theos. From being a cruel man Asoka is converted to Buddhism. Builds monasteries and many splendid edifices for the new faith. Associates Buddhist priests with him in the government. Professed by the king and his family, Buddhism now spreads rapidly throughout India.

Ceylon under King Devanampriya-Tishya (245–205) is also converted.
The kingdom of Magadha is extended over Surashtra (Guzerat), Orissa,
Kalinga, and in the south beyond the Godavari.

The monumental history of India begins.

226 Subhagasena succeeds his father, Asoka. In his reign or that of his father the columns of Bharhut, Sanchi, and Buddha Gaya were erected.

180 Eucratides, king of Bactria, conquers the Indus as far as Patala.

GRÆCO-BACTRIAN DOMINION IN THE INDUS REGION

178 Fall of the dynasty of Maurya.

The Sungas ascend the throne.

Two kings, Puspamitra and Agnimitra, reign thirty years.

148 The Gupta dynasty succeeds.

125 The Tatar tribe of Su drives the Greeks from Bactria, and the GræcoBactrian settlements in the Punjab are overthrown by Tue-Chi.

The extent of the Scythian invasion has been variously estimated. Some scholars believe that they virtually supplanted the previous population of India, and there seems little doubt that by far the most numerous section of the Punjab population is of Scythian origin. At all events the Scythians play an important part in the subsequent history of northern India, and are the means of Buddhism getting into central and eastern Asia.

57 Beginning of the era founded in honour of King Vikramaditya. This name has been borne by several kings in Indian history—all famous for their struggles against the Scythians, from which much confusion.

has arisen.

A.D. 2-78 A.D. By this time the Scythians have established an empire over which the Kanishka family rules.

78 Salivahana, a king of southern India, is supposed to have checked the advance of the Scythians towards the south. After this, the fortunes of the invaders undergo many reverses. From now until the time of the Mohammedan conquest our knowledge of Indian history is most imperfect. But among the opponents of the Scythians there

are:

60-235 The Sah (or Xatrapa) kings living north-west of Bombay. 319-470 The Gupta kings of Oudh and the northwest provinces. 480-722 The Valabhi kings in Cutch, the northwest districts of Bombay

and Malwa.

510-560 Within the period took place the great battle of Korur in which King Vikramaditya of Ujjain in Malwa annihilated the Scythian army. 636 First appearance of the Mohammedans in India.

Osman sends a naval expedition to the Bombay coast.

712 Kasim invades Sind and establishes himself in the Indus valley. 722 The invaders overthrow the Valabhi dynasty.

828 The Hindus expel the Mohammedans and regain possession of Sind. 977-1176 Era of Mohammedan invasion.

A portion of the Punjab annexed to the Saracen empire.

1199 Mohammedan conquest of Behar.

1203 Mohammedan conquest of Lower Bengal.

1295-1315 Conquest of southern India.

1398 Tatar invasion of Timur (Tamerlane).

1482 Accession of Babar. (The Mogal dynasty.)

1556 Accession of Akbar the Great. The Mohammedan empire of India established.

H. W.-VOL. II. 21

INDIA like China and Egypt is reputed to be a land of evasive mysteries. Like them it had a self-contained civilisation with apparently no desire to reach out from it to the greater world. To be sure, India was not shut off from outside contact as fully as China, for the Phoenicians were early drawn by its fabled treasures to visit it in a commercial capacity, and tradition relates that, at least once, Assyrian forces had invaded its bounds on a less peaceful mission. But, nevertheless, the share of the Indians themselves in such intercourse was largely passive. They received foreign traders, unlike the early Egyptians; and they repelled foreign invaders; but they themselves seemed just as little inclined as before to spread beyond national bounds. Even the Egyptians had their periods of foreign conquests, when they penetrated Asia, at least as far as the Tigris, but if the Hindus ever yielded to a like impulse there is no record of it preserved to us. Yet their influence upon the nations that traded with them must have been considerable and they thus have a larger share in the scheme of ancient history than China. Even so, however, their place is a minor one compared with that of Egypt and Babylonia. Even were it greater, the records from which to reconstruct its history are meagre and we shall be obliged to content ourselves with a sketch that is at best but fragmentary.

There is another point of view from which the Hindus have an interest exceeding that of even the most important of ancient nations that we have hitherto studied. For with them we come for the first time in contact with the great Aryan race. Hitherto we have traced the history of the Hamitic, Semitic, and Turanian races, but now with the Aryan race we enter upon what may be considered the direct channel of European history, for practically all subsequent history has to do with this race.

Turning then to the Hindus, the easternmost branch of the great Indo-Germanic or Aryan race, we find, as was to be expected, the same utter obscurity as to origin that we have seen encompassing all questions of racial beginnings elsewhere. One perhaps is justified, however, in feeling that in the case of the Hindus secure traditions carry us one stage farther back than is the case, for example, with such races as the Egyptians and Chinese. For it is accepted as a clear historic fact that the Aryan race, who came to be at a very early day, at least 1000 B.C., -the absolutely dominant force practically throughout the vast territory of India, had invaded this territory from the northwest; had come, in short, from that Central-Asiatic centre of distribution which we have just spoken of as the long accepted traditional cradle of the Aryan races. Whether at a still earlier period this migration had its source in more distant lands, including ultimately the Atlantic borders of Europe, is altogether problematical, but that the immediate source of invasion was Central Asia is not to be doubted.