ficed in the adaptation to changed conditions of life; but few traces of such a change can be observed amid the Phoenicians in their colonial cities.

Moreover, we are only now, since excavations in Greece have brought to light considerable quantities of remains from pre-Homeric times, beginning to put a correct estimate upon the sum of fruitful suggestions and finished products which the Phoenician seafarers and traders together with their wares brought to the nations of the West, and above all to Greek art. In this way, the expansion of the Phoenicians exercised an enduring influence upon the whole course of the history of civilisation in all later times.

What fitted them to become, in this sense also, an historically important people was, besides the tenacity of will with which they pursued their aims, a high degree of intellectual receptivity, which enabled them to assimilate with ease the attainments of foreign culture; and also the adaptability and insight with which they could make themselves at home even in entirely foreign surroundings.

Of the favourableness, or unfavourableness of circumstances, they were no more independent than any other people on earth has been. It even appears that, in accordance with some law, they achieved results only when, in the course of their undertakings, they came in contact with nations whose civilisation was still in process of formation, or at least, during the period of contact, did not attain to any importance of its own.

But the skill with which they were able to turn just such circumstances to their own advantage, and to continue a national existence in the midst of such an environment (this highly developed capacity for adaptation was their peculiar inheritance) was something that at least would have been utterly impossible with the cultured races of the Nile and the Euphrates. It was chiefly due to the fact that, not national elements, but those which had been learned and borrowed from foreign races, predominated in Phoenician culture. This made culture a comfortable garment, took from it and its wearers the awkwardness that would have developed in case of a more independent origin, kept it free from many fast chains and immutable faults which come with a uniform national culture and an isolated history of development.

As the scene of the history of the Phoenicians varies in extent with the location of their settlements, Phoenicia is less a fixed geographical idea than a name, which would simply designate in general that portion of the Syrian coast, whose chief population was of Phoenician descent.

Accordingly, the origin of the name "Phœnicia" (Phoinike) which the Greeks gave to this stretch of coast, is to be found in the Greek name of the inhabitants: "Phoinix," the plural "Phoinix" and not "Phoinikes" from the name of the country.

"Phoinix" is formed like "Cilix," the "Cilician," and denotes the Phonician as a man of reddish-brown complexion, as in Greek "phoinos" is the name of a colour varying from a brownish to a deep red. The same root which is in "phoinos" and "Phoinix " is also found in "Poenus," " the Punic," which was the form given by the Italian races to the name they heard from the mouths of the Greeks of Greece proper (Hellas).

Word formations like that of Phoinix, not being very common in Greek as names of races, the Greeks did not always keep in mind the fundamental meaning of Phoinix, and very early began to devise artificial etymologies for it, which have in part proved to be quite arbitrary and absurd but in part have found approval among modern savants. Nor have the latter, on their side, neglected to increase the number of unsuccessful attempts at interpretation. It is not necessary to enter here into a discussion of the majority of

these explanations, upon a refutation of the assertion that the Phoenicians received their name from Phoinix, a brother of Cadmus, or that the word "dyers in red" designates them as "purple merchants," or even "robbers" and "murderers," and other such notions, for they are now things of the past. Nevertheless they are in some degree on the right track, inasmuch as in them Phoinike is regarded as the derived, and Phoinix the root word.

As the date-palm and its fruit first became known to the Greeks through the medium of the Phoenicians, this tree was likewise called by them Phoinix, the "Phoenician" palm. So in antiquity it was a widespread interpretation to make Phoinike come, not from Phoinix, "the Phoenician," but from phoinix, "date palm," making Phoinike signify the "land of palms," "the land of the date palm." Among moderns, Movers in particular has brought forward many reasons for the correctness of this explanation.

Athenæus expressly mentions dates as a valuable article of Phoenician trade; but it is perhaps a great mistake to take them for a product of Phoenicia instead of a mere article of commerce, for the fruit of the Phoenix dactylifera does not reach maturity at all in Phoenicia. Little can be proved from the representation of the palm tree on coins whose origin may be traced solely to Grecian prototypes.

Finally, it is a philological impossibility that after the form Phoinike, as the name of the country, has been derived from phoinix, "date palm," such a form as Phoinix as a designation of the inhabitants could ever have been in turn the result of derivation from this name of the country.

CHRONOLOGY

Or the sources for this history it is hardly possible to do more than to say that they hardly exist in any tangible form, and to echo Heeren's complaint:

"The severest loss which ancient history has to mourn, a loss irreparable, is that of the destruction of the records that should inform us of the affairs, the government, and the enterprises of the Phoenicians. In proportion to the vast influence which this nation had in the civilisation of mankind by its own great inventions and discoveries (the invention of alphabetical writing is alone sufficient to show their importance), by its numerous colonies established in every quarter, and by its commerce extending even beyond these; the more sensibly we feel the gaps which the loss of these records leaves in the history of the human race. It is the conviction of the extent of this loss that gives the few fragments which have been preserved out of the great mass, a peculiar attraction to the historian; and though it may be impossible to compile from them a history of the Phoenicians, yet they will probably enable him to draw a tolerably faithful picture of the general character and genius of this nation in its various undertakings."

The Phoenicians were a Semitic people, probably an early offshoot, like the Canaanites, from the parent stock; a people of remarkable industry, intelligence, and enterprise. Their country lay in southern Syria, between the Lebanon Mountains and the Mediterranean Sea, a strip of land about two hundred miles in length by thirty-five at its greatest width. Phoenicia was never a united state, but rather a confederacy of cities. At the time of our earliest knowledge Sidon stood at the head, but in the thirteenth century, B.C. Tyre became the most important.

B.0.

FIRST PERIOD-TO THE SUPREMACY OF TYRE
(3800-1100 B.C.)

3800 The empire of Sargon of Agade is believed to have included Syria and the shores of the Mediterranean.

2750 Foundation of Tyre, according to Herodotus' account.

1950 One of the Elamite sovereigns of Babylon appears to have reduced a large part of Syria to subservience, which state of affairs does not last long.

1635 Aahmes I visits Zahi (southern Phoenicia) in his invasion of Asia, after the expulsion of the Hyksos.

pay tribute.

1590 Tehutimes I appears to have made the Phoenicians 1530 Tehutimes III lays waste the land of Zahi; again in 1516. 1506 Arka (Akko) destroyed by Tehutimes III. Phoenicia is made tributary. 1500 Settlement of the Phoenicians in Cyprus. From this time on colonisation of the shore of the Mediterranean becomes active. Rhodes, the Cyclades, the islands of the Thracian coast, Samothrace, and Thasos are occupied. The stations on the Ægean are early abandoned but the Phoenicians remain in Cyprus until ousted by the Dorians. In the twelfth century B.C. the later Ramessides lose their dominion over Phoenicia. Egyptian culture and civilisation left little trace on Phoenicia, whereas the influence of Babylonia was very strong. After the loss of Phoenicia by Egypt, a number of petty feeble states arise.

About this time the colonists have reached the western shore of the Mediterranean, and Gades (Cadiz) and Tarshish in Spain are founded. The Atlantic is discovered, and according to classical accounts tin is brought from the mines of the Cassiterides, which by some authorities is said to mean the Scilly Isles and Cornwall, by others the island near Vigo in Spain.

1110 Tiglathpileser I of Assyria visits Phoenicia in his military campaigns.

SECOND PERIOD (1100-538 B.C.)

Up till now Sidon has stood at the head of the Phoenician cities, but the hegemony is lost to Tyre. The first king of whom we have any knowledge is

1020 Abibaal.

980 [or 969] Hiram I. his son, succeeds.

He fortifies the island of Tyre;

makes war against the Cypriotes who have refused tribute, and again subjugates them. Is the friend of Solomon.

936 Baalbazer, Hiram's son, succeeds him.

929 Abdastarte, his son, succeeds.

920 Is killed by a conspiracy of his foster-brothers.

eldest of the assassins seizes the throne.

Metuastarte, the

908 Astarte, a scion of Hiram's house, reigns in conjunction with Metu

astarte.

896 Astarym, brother of Metuastarte, succeeds.

887 Is murdered by another brother, Phelles, who takes the throne, but the same year he also is killed by Ithobaal or Ethbaal, a priest of Astarte, who thereby becomes king.

In after years Jezebel, Ithobaal's daughter, marries Ahab of Israel. 876 Asshurnazirpal of Assyria invades Phoenicia and erects a stele at the Nahr-el-Kelb, near Berytus. Tyre, Sidon, Tripolis, and Aradus hasten to send presents, and he does not trouble them further. Ithobaal founds Botrys, probably as a means of defence against the Assyrians, also Aoza in Africa.

855 Baalazar, Ithobaal's son, succeeds to the throne of Tyre.

854 Battle of Qarqar. Victory of Shalmaneser II over Ben-Hadad II of Damascus and his allies. King Mettenbaal of Aradus takes part with the Syrians in the battle.

849 Metten I, Baalazar's son, succeeds.

842-839 According to Shalmaneser's record he takes tribute from Tyre, Sidon, and Byblus, but this may mean that voluntary presents are

sent.

820 Pygmalion, Metten's son, succeeds at age of nine.

812 He slays his uncle Sicharbas, the regent.

813 Flight of Elissa, Pygmalion's sister and Sicharbas' wife. She founds Carthage.

804-803 Adad-nirari III's armies reach Phoenicia, and exact tribute from Tyre and Sidon.

773 Death of Pygmalion. The list of Phoenician kings given by Menander comes to an end.

738 Tiglathpileser III invades Syria, where a coalition has been formed to evade tribute. He returns to Assyria with rich treasure; amongst it the tribute of Hiram (II) of Tyre and Bibittibili of Byblus. 734 Byblus and Aradus pay tribute. Tyre does so under force. Tyre is still practically an independent state.

728 Elulæus, king of Tyre, rules under the name of Pylas. Revolt of the Cittai in Cyprus subdued.

727 According to Josephus, Shalmaneser IV attacks Elulæus.

Sidon,

Akko, and Palætyrus submit, and Tyre is captured after a five years' siege. But there is no mention of this in Shalmaneser's records, and it is extremely probable that Josephus confuses these events with those that actually took place in the reign of Sennacherib. In his annals, Sargon II speaks of Tyre as of a town that belongs to him. 701 Sennacherib invades Syria where Hezekiah of Judah and other princes

are planning a strong rebellion against Assyria. Elulæus (Luli), king of Sidon, flees at the Assyrian's approach. Sennacherib makes the city the capital of a new province, and Ithobaal its king. The cities of the coast are ravaged, and Phoenician commerce greatly interfered with.

The colonial power of Tyre now begins to decay. The Assyrians settle themselves in Cyprus, and the Dorian migration has already driven the Phoenicians from the Grecian islands.

695 An independent kingdom is established at Tarshish. 690 The Phoenicians begin to lose their hold on Sicily.

680 Abd-milkot, king of Sidon, with Sandurri of Kundu and Sizu, revolts against Assyria. Abd-milkot flees at Esarhaddon's approach and the latter besieges Sidon.

678 Fall of Sidon after a siege of nearly three years. The city is destroyed, and a new one, Kar-Asshur-akhe-iddin built on its ruins. Abd-milkot beheaded.

Phoenician and Cypriote kings make submission to Assyria. 671 Baal I of Tyre revolts unsuccessfully against Esarhaddon.

In sub

mission he sends his own son Yahi-melek to the Assyrian court. 668 Asshurbanapal succeeds Esarhaddon on the Assyrian throne. With the help of Tyre he compels Yakinlu, king of Aradus, to submit. Subsequently Yakinlu is deposed and his son Azebaal given the throne. After this time the Phoenicians begin to throw off the Assyrian yoke, an achievement made easy by Asshurbanapal's struggle with Shamash-shum-ukin in Babylonia. The recovery of independence is a peaceable one.