and of the woman of Tekoah. (2 Sam. xiv. 4-7.) The admirably devised | but except ye repent, ye shall all likewise perish. Having repeated the parable of Nathan is perhaps one of the finest specimens of the genuine last sentence a second time, he delivered the parable of the barren fig tree. pathetic style that can be found in the Old Testament; and David's eager In like manner, to the parable of the prodigal son nothing is prefixed or condemnation of the unsuspected offender at the same time displays a strik- subjoined; but the relation occurs immediately after two others, in which ing instance of the delusion of sin and the blindness of self-love. "He, who it was declared that the return of penitent sinners affords joy in heaven. had lived a whole year in the unrepented commission of one of the blackest This, however, is an important topic, and will require to be more particucrimes in the decalogue-and who, to secure to himself the object for which larly considered. From the observations already made on the general he had committed it, perpetrated another almost more heinous, and that nature of parables, it will be easily perceived that the objects of our Lord's with an hypocrisy suited to his character-he could in an instant denounce parables were various; such as the conveying either of instruction or death on the imaginary offender for a fault comparatively trifling."-"See-reproof, the correcting or preventing of errors; the instructing of men in ing, he saw not, and hearing, he heard not," he immediately saw the the knowledge of some truths which could be viewed with advantage only iniquity and barbarity of the rich man's proceedings; his heart was in a at a distance, or of others, which would have startled them when plainly moment fired with indignation at the thought of it; the vehemence of his proposed. Further, there were truths which were necessary to be conresentment even overstepped the limits of his natural justice, in decreeing veyed, respecting the establishment of his religion, and the conduct of his a punishment disproportioned to the crime, while he remained dead to his disciples on occasion of that event. These subjects required to be touched own delinquency. A pointed parable instantly surprised him into the most with a delicate hand; and a few instances will show that each of them was bitter self-reproach. A direct accusation might have inflamed him before conducted with the highest grace and propriety. he was thus prepared; and in the one case he might have punished the accuser, by whom, in the other, he was brought into the deepest self abasement. The prudent prophet did not rashly reproach the king with the crime which he wished him to condemn; but placed the fault at such a distance, and in such a point of view, that he first procured his impartial judgment, and afterwards his self-condemnation :-an important lesson, not only to the offender, but also to the reprover." Thus, the worldly spirit of the Pharisees is delicately yet strikingly reproved in the parables of the rich man whose grounds brought forth plentifully (Luke xii. 15-21.); which was spoken to show the folly of covetousness, of the unjust steward (Luke xvi. 1.), to show the proper use of wealth,-and of the rich man and the beggar (Luke xvi. 19-31.), to show the danger of abusing it. The selfishness and bigotry of the same sect, which characteristic in some degree applied to the whole Jewish nation, who "trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and despised others," are convicted in the parables of the Pharisee and the publican praying in the temple, of the two sons commanded to work in the vineyard, of the guest who chose the highest seat at the table, of the lost sheep and money, of the prodigal son, and of the good Samaritan. In several of these parables the comparative merit of the Jew and Gentile world is justly though faintly stated, on purpose to abase the pride of the one and to exalt the Another class of parables is designed to deliver some general lessons of wisdom and piety: such are the parables of the ten virgins and the talents. The parables of the sower and of the tares, and many of the lesser parables, are designed to show the nature and progress of the Gospel dis pensation, together with the opposition which would be made to it from the malice of Satan, and the folly and perverseness of mankind. these are closely connected such parables as have for their object the rejection of the Jews, and the calling of the Gentiles: under this head are comprised the parables of the murmuring labourers, of the cruel and unjust husbandinen, the barren fig tree, and the marriage-feast. By conby the Redeemer of the world, we shall be enabled, not only to ascertain sidering the occasions upon which these and other parables were delivered their scope and design, but also to perceive their wisdom, beauty, and propriety. 3. Every parable is composed of three parts; 1. The sensible similitude, which has variously been termed the bark and the protasis, and consists in its literal sense ;-2. The explanation or mystical sense, also termed the apodosis and the sap or fruit, or the thing signified by the similitude proposed. This is frequently not expressed; for though our Saviour sometimes conde-humble hopes of the other. scended to unveil the hidden sense, by disclosing the moral meaning of his parables (as in Matt. xiii. 3-8. 18-23. compared with Luke viii. 4-15. and Matt. xiii. 24-30. 36-43.), yet he usually left the application to those whom he designed to instruct by his doctrine. Of this description are the parables of the grain of mustard seed, of leaven, of the hidden treasure, and the pearl of great price (Matt. xiii. 31-33. 44-46.), between which and the kingdom of heaven a comparison is instituted, the mystical sense of which is to be sought in the similitudes themselves;-3. The third constituent part of a parable is the root or scope to which it tends.? 4. For the right explanation and application of parables, their general SCOPE and design must be ascertained. Where our Saviour has not himself interpreted a parable, its immediate scope and design are to be sought with great attention: this, indeed, will generally appear from the context, being either expressed at its commence. ment or at its conclusion; or it is sufficiently evident from the occasion on which it was delivered. More particularly the scope of a parable may be ascertained, (1.) From the clear declaration prefixed to it; As in the parable of the rich glutton (Luke xii. 16-20.), which is prefaced by the following caution in verse 15.:-Take heed and beware of covetous ness, for a man's life consisteth not in the abundance of the things which he possesseth. Thus, in Luke xviii. 2-8. the parable of the unjust judge is preceded by this declaration, which plainly points out one of its senses: -He spake a parable unto them, that men ought always to pray, and not to faint. And again, in verse 9. He spake this parable (of the Pharisee and publican, verses 10-14.) unto certain which trusted in themselves that they were righteous, and despised others. (2) From the declaration subjoined to a parable; Thus our Saviour concludes the parable of the unmerciful creditor, who would not forgive his debtor the minutest portion of his debt, though much had been forgiven him (Matt. xviii. 23-35.), by the following explanation :So likewise shall my heavenly Father do also unto you, if ye forgive not every one his brother their trespasses. Similar declarations are annexed to the parables of the wedding feast (Matt. xxv. 13. Luke xiv. 11.), of the rich glutton (Luke xii. 21.), and of the unjust steward. (Luke xvi. 9,) The prophetic writings will furnish similar instances: thus Isaiah (v. 1-7.) having delivered the parable of a vineyard-planted with the choicest vines, and cultivated with the utmost care, yet which produced only wild fruit-announces at its close, that by the vineyard were intended the Jews, and by the wild fruit their enormous wickedness, for which they deserved the severest judgments. Nathan, also, in the beautiful parable already cited, subjoined a declaration of its scope to the criminal sovereign. In the short parable, or apologue, communicated from Jehoash king of Israel to Amaziah king of Judah (2 Kings xiv. 9, 10.), the application of it to the latter is explicitly stated at its conclusion. (3.) Where no declaration is prefixed or subjoined to a parable, its scope must be collected from a consideration of the subject-matter, context, or the occasion on account of which the parable was delivered. Thus, in the parable of the barren fig tree (Luke xiii. 6-9.), Jesus Christ has indicated nothing concerning its scope. But from the consideration of the context of his discourse, and of the occasion of the parable, we learn that it was designed to teach the Jews, that unless they repented within the space of time allotted to them by Infinite Mercy, severe punishments would await them, and their civil and religious polity be destroyed. The immediate occasion of the parable was, his disciples telling him of certain Galileans, who had come up to the temple at Jerusalem, to worship, and whose blood Pilate had mingled with their sacrifices. On hearing this circumstance, Christ said, Suppose ye, that these Galileans were sinners above all the Galileans, because they suffered these things? I tell you, nay: 1 Mrs. More's Christian Morals, vol. i. p. 108. In parabolis, si integre accipiantur, tria sunt; radix, cortex et medulla sive fructus. Radir est scopus, in quem tendit parabola. Cortex est similitudo sensibilis, quæ adhibetur, et suo sensu literali constat. Medulla seu fructus est sensus parabola mysticus, seu ipsa res ad quam parabolæ fit accommodatio, seu quæ per similitudinem propositam significatur. Glassii Philologia Sacra, lib. ii. pars i. tr. 2. sect. 5. canon 3. col. 488. (Lip siæ, 1725.) It is not a little remarkable that the nine very useful canons for the interpretation of parables, by Glassius, should be altogether omitted in Professor Dathe's valuable edition of his work. With 5. Wherever the words of Jesus seem to be capable of different senses, we may with certainty conclude that to be the true one which lies most level to the apprehension of his auditors. Allowing for those figurative expressions which were so very frequent and familiar with them, and which, therefore, are no exceptions to this the most attention. general rule, this necessary canon of interpretation, of all others, demands 6. As every parable has two senses, the LITERAL or external, and the MYSTICAL or internal sense, the literal sense must be first explained, in order that the correspondence between it and the mystical sense may be the more readily perceived. For instance, "the parable of the unforgiving servant represents, literally, that his lord forgave him a debt of ten thousand talents;-mystically, rable offences. Literally, it states that this servant, on his refusal to exeror spiritually, that God remits to the penitent the punishment of innume cise forbearance towards his fellow-servant, was delivered over to the tormentors: mystically, that God will inflict the severest judgments on all interpretations is easily perceptible:" whence it follows that every parawho do not forgive others their trepasses. The unity of sense in both ble must be consistent throughout, and that the literal sense must not be confounded with the mystical sense. Hence also it follows, that, since the scope and application of parables are the chief points to be regarded, 7. It is not necessary, in the interpretation of parables, that we should anxiously insist upon every single word; nor ought we to expect too curious an adaptation or accommodation of it in every part to the spiritual meaning inculcated by it; for many circumstances are introduced into parables which are merely ornamental, and designed to make the similitude more pleasing and interesting. Inattention to this obvious rule has led many expositors into the most fanciful explanations; resemblances have been accumulated, which are for the most part futile, or at best of little use, and manifestly not included in the scope of the parable. Where, indeed, circumstantial resemblances (though merely ornamental) will admit of an easy and natural application, they are by no means to be overlooked: and it is worthy of remark, that in those parables which our Lord himself explained to his disciples, there are few, if any, of the circumstantial points left unapplied; but here great judgment is necessary neither to do too little, nor to attempt too much. In the application, then, of this rule, there are two points to be considered: (1.) Persons are not to be compared with persons, but things with things; part is not to be compared with part, but the whole of the parable with itself. Thus, we read in Matt. xiii. 24. The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a man which sowed good seed in his field; and in verse 45. The kingdom of heaven is likened unto a merchant man seeking goodly pearls. The similitude here is not with the men, but with the seed and the pearl; and the construction is to be the same as in verses 31. and 33., where the progress of the Gospel is compared to the grain of mustard-seed, and to leaven. (2.) In parables it is not necessary that all the actions of men, mentioned in them, should be just actions, that is to say, morally just and honest. For instance, the unjust steward (Luke xvi. 1-8.) is not proposed either to justify his dishonesty, or as an example to us in cheating his lord (for that is merely ornamental, and introduced to fill up the story), but as an | lodged by the overflowing, of the rapid tumultuous torrent, and in his fury example of his care and prudence, in providing for the future. From the rushing into the upland country; and we shall perceive the admirable préconduct of this man, our Lord took occasion to point out the management priety and force of the prophet's allusion. of worldly men, as an example of attention to his followers in their spiritual affairs; and at the same time added an impressive exhortation to make the things of this life subservient to their everlasting happiness; assuring them, that if they did not use temporal blessings as they ought, they could never be qualified to receive spiritual blessings. So again, in Luke xii. 39. and Rev. iii. 3. the coming of Christ is compared to the coming of a thief, not in respect of theft, but of the sudden surprise. "It is not necessary," says a great master of eloquence, "that there should be a perfect resemblance of one thing in all respects to another; but it is necessary that a thing should bear a likeness to that with which it is compared." 8. Attention to HISTORICAL CIRCUMSTANCES, as well as an acquaintance with the nature and properties of the things whence the similitudes are taken, will essentially contribute to the interpretation of parables. (1.) Some of the parables related in the New Testament are supposed to be true histories: in the incidental circumstances of others, our Saviour evidently had a regard to historical propriety. Thus, the scene of that most beautiful and instructive parable of the good Samaritan (Luke x. 30-37.) is very appositely placed in that dangerous road which lay between Jerusalem and Jericho; no way being more frequented than this, both on account of its leading to Peræa, and especially because the classes or stations of the Priests and Levites were fixed at Jericho as well as at Jerusalem and hence it is that a Priest and a Levite are mentioned as travelling this way. 2 It further appears, that at this very time Judæa in general was overrun by robbers, and that the road between Jericho and Jerusalem (in which our Lord represents this robbery to have been committed) was particularly infested by banditti, whose depredations it favoured, as it lay through a dreary solitude. On account of these frequent robberies, we are informed by Jerome that it was called the Bloody Way.3 (2.) Again, in the parable of a nobleman who went into a far country to receive for himself a kingdom, and to return (Luke xix. 12.), our Lord alludes to a case, which, no long time before, had actually occurred in Judæa. Those who, by hereditary succession, or by interest, had pretensions to the Jewish throne, travelled to Rome, in order to have it confirmed to them. Herod the Great first went that long journey to obtain the kingdom of Judæa from Antony, in which he succeeded; and having received the kingdom, he afterwards travelled from Judæa to Rhodes in order to obtain a confirmation of it from Cæsar, in which he was equally success. ful. Archelaus, the son and successor of Herod, did the same; and to him our Lord most probably alluded. Every historical circumstance is beautifully interwoven by our Saviour in this instructive parable. 9. Lastly, although in many of his parables Jesus Christ has delineated the future state of the church, yet he intended that they should convey some important moral precepts, of which we should never lose sight in interpreting parables. Thus, the parable of the sower (Matt. xiii. 3-24. Mark iv. 3-20 and Luke viii. 4-16.) has a moral doctrine, for our Lord himself soon after subjoins the following important caution:-Take heed how ye hear. Agara, the parable of the tares (Matt. xiii. 24. et seq.) refers to the mixture of the wicked with the good in this world; when, therefore, our Lord intimated (in verses 27-29.) that it is not our province to judge those whom he has reserved for his own tribunal, and in the 30th verse added, let both grow together, he evidently implied that, since God tolerates incorrigible sinners, it is the duty of men to bear with them: the propagation of false doctrines is an offence against God, who alone is the judge and punisher of them :man has no right to punish his brethren for their sentiments. The parsbles which are delivered in the same chapter of Saint Matthew's Gospel, and also in Luke xiii. 19, 21. delineate the excellence of the religion of Jesus, and are admirably adapted to inspire us with love and admiration for its Divine Author. Further, the parable of the labourers in the vineyard (Matt. xx. 1-17.), besides predicting the future reception of the Gospel, teaches us that no one should despair of the divine mercy so long as he lives, and that God will bestow upon the faithful a larger measure of blessedness than they can venture to expect, and also that we should not be moved with envy, if others enjoy a greater portion of gifts or talents than are be stowed upon ourselves. In fact, as an able expositor has remarked, since our Saviour's parables frequently have a double view, this parable seeIDS not only to illustrate the case of the Jews and Gentiles, but also the case of all individuals of every nation, whom God accepts according to their inprovement of the opportunities they have enjoyed. In like manner, the parable of the royal nuptials, related in Matt. xxii. verses 1-15. was designed chiefly to show the Jews, that the offers of grace which they rejected would be made to the Gentiles. But the latter part of it also seems intended to check the presumption of such as pretend to the divine favour without complying with the conditions on which it is promised. It was customary for the bridegroom to prepare vestments for his guests; and the man mentioned in verses 11-13. is said to have intruded without the requisite garment.10 IV. From the preceding remarks it will have been seen that parables are of more frequent occurrence in the New than in the Old Testament; and although some hints have been already offered, to account for the adoption of this mode of instruction, yet as some persons have taken occasion, from the prophecy of Isaiah (vi. 9, 10.), as cited by Matthew (xii. 13-15.), to insinuate that our Lord spake in parables in order that the perverse Jews might not understand, it may not be irrelevant if we conclude the present strictures on parabolic instruction, with a few remarks on the reasons why it was adopted by our Lord. (3.) Of the further benefit to be derived from history in the interpreta tion of parables, the similes in Matt. xiii. 31, 32. will afford a striking illustration in these parables the progress of the Gospel is compared to a grain of mustard-seed, and to leaven: nothing is subjoined to these verses by way of explanation. What then is their scope? Jesus Christ was desirous of accustoming his disciples to parabolic instruction: from this design, however, we cannot collect the sense of the parables; we have therefore, no other resource but history. Since, then, Jesus Christ is speaking of the progress of the Christian church, we must consult ecclesiastical history, which informs us that, from small beginnings, the church of Christ has grown into a vast congregation, that is, spread over the whole world. In order, however, that we may enter fully into the meaning of this parable of our Lord, it may not be irrelevant to observe that in eastern countries the the other inhabitants of the East, as already stated; and some 1. The practice was familiar to the Jews in common with mustard-plant (or, at least, a species of the rivazi, which the Orientals of our Lord's parables were probably taken from Jewish cus comprehended under that name) attains a greater size than with us. consummation. It ap pears that the Orientals were accustomed to give the denomination of trees to plants growing to the height of ten or twelve feet, and having branches in proportion. To such a height the mustard-plant grows in Judæa; and its branches are so strong and well covered with leaves, as to afford shelter to the feathered tribe. Such is the image by which Jesus Christ represents the progress of his Gospel. The kingdom of heaven, said he, is like to a grain of mustard seed-small and contemptible in its beginning; which is indeed the least of all seeds, that is, of all those seeds, with which the Jews were then acquainted (for our Lord's words are to be interpreted by popular use; and we learn from Matt. xvii. 20. that like a grain of mustard seed was a proverbial expression to denote a small quantity): but when it is grown, it becometh a tree, so that the birds of the air come and lodge in the branches thereof. Under this simple and beautiful figure does Jesus Christ describe the admirable development of his Gospel from its origin to its final (4.) We have said that the understanding of parables is facilitated by an acquaintance with the properties of the things whence the similitudes are derived. Besides the diffusive effects of learen already adverted to, which sufficiently indicate the certain spread of the Gospel, we may adduce an example from the prophet Jeremiah; who, parabolically describing a ing of Jordan against the habitation of the strong. The propriety of this furious invader (xlix. 19.), says, He shall come up like a lion from the swell will appear, when it is known that in ancient times the river Jordan was particularly infested with lions, which concealed themselves among the thick reeds upon its banks. Let us then imagine one of these monarchs of the desert asleep among the thickets upon the banks of that river: let us further suppose him to be suddenly awakened by the roaring, or dis1 Non enim res tota toti rei necesse est similes sit; sed ad ipsum, ad quod conferetur, similitudinem habeat, oportet. CICERO ad Herennium, lib. iv. c. 48. tom. i. p. 122. edit. Bipont. 2 Lightfoot, Hor. Heb. in loc. 3 Jerome, cited by Calmet, in loc. 4 Josephus, Ant. Jud. lib. xiv. c. xiv. §§ 4, 5. Ibid. lib. xv. c. vi. §§ 6, 7. See Lightfoot's and Schoettgenius's Hore Hebraica et Talmudicæ, in Matt. xiii. 31, 32. "After having descended," says Maundrell, "the outermost bank of Jordan, you go about a furlong upon a level strand, before you come to the immediate bank of the river. This second bank is so beset with bushes and trees, such as tamarisks, willows, oleanders, &c. that you can see no water, till you have made your way through them. In this thicket anciently, and the same is reported of it at this day, several sorts of wild beasts were wont to harbour themselves; whose being washed out of the covert by the overflowings of the river gave occasion to that allusion, He shall come up like a lion from the swelling of Jordan," &c. Maundrell's Journey from Aleppo to Jerusalem, p. 110. (London, 1810.) Agreeably to this account, Ammianus Marcellinus states, that "innumerable lions wander about among the reeds and copses on the borders of the rivers in Mesopotamia." Lib. xviii. c. 7. (tom. i. p. 177. edit. Bipont.) toms, as the royal nuptials (Matt. xxii. 1-15.), the rich glut ton (Luke xvi. 19-31.,) and the wise and foolish virgins. (Matt. xxv. 1-13.)12 This method of teaching, therefore, was intelligible to an attentive and inquiring. auditory. Matt. xv. 10. and Mark iv. 13. See 2. It was customary for the disciples of the Jewish doctors, when they did not understand the meaning of their parables, to request an explanation from their teachers; in like manner, Christ's hearers might have applied to him, if they had not been indisposed to receive the doctrines he taught, and had they not preferred to be held in error by the Scribes and Pharisees, rather than to receive instruction from his lips. veil offensive truths or hard sayings, until, in due season, they 3. Parabolic instruction was peculiarly well calculated to should be disclosed with greater evidence and lustre, when revolt at the premature disclosure of the mystery. Compare they were able to hear and to bear them, lest they should Mark iv. 33. with John xvi. 12. 25. 4. It was a necessary screen from the malice of his inveterate enemies, the chief priests, Scribes and Pharisees; who would not have failed to take advantage of any express declaration which they might turn to his destruction (John It is with pleasure the author transcribes the following explicit declaration of the learned Romanist, Viser. Having cited the passages above adduced, he says, Fucile apparet eos huic precepto nequaquam satisfacere, qui VI, METU, ac MINIS, HOMINES STUDENT A SUA RELIGIONE ABDUCERE Herineneutica Sacra Nov. Test. pars iii. p. 131. 9 Gilpin's Exposition of the New Test. vol. i. p 78. note t. 10 The authorities consulted for this section, independently of those already cited incidentally, are Ernesti, Instit. Interp. Nov. Test. p. 112; Morus, in Ernesti, tom. I. pp. 314-320.; Bauer, Hermeneutica Sacra, pp. 226-229.; Glassii Philologia Sacra, lib. ii. part i. tract 2. sect. 5. canons 39. col. 473-492; Turretin, de Interpret. Script. pp. 214, 215.; Pfeiffer, Herm. Sacr. c. iii. § 13. (Op. tom. ii. pp. 635, 636.); Chladenius, Inst Exeget. pp. 190, 191.; J. E. Pfeiffer, Inst. Herm. Sacr. pp. 753-773.; Alber, Hermeneut. Sacr. Nov. Test. vol. i. pp. 50-56. Brouwer, de Parabolis Christ (Lug. Bat. 1825); Scholten, Diatribe de Parabolis Christi (Lug. Bat. 1827) Schultze, De Parabolarum Jesu Christi Indole Poeticâ Commentatio (Gottinga, 1827); and Unger, De Parabolarum Jesu Natura (Lipsiæ, 1828). See p. 366. supra. 12 Sheringham, in Pref. ad Joma, cited by Whitby on Matt. xiii. 10. x. 24.); but yet they could not lay hold of the most pointed the events to which they refer, and with which they so exparables, which, they were clear-sighted enough to perceive, were levelled against themselves. See Matt. xxi. 45. Mark xi. 12. and Luke xx. 19.1 5. The parables did not contain the fundamental precepts and doctrines of the Gospel, which were delivered in the audience of the people with sufficient perspicuity in Matt. v.vii. and elsewhere, but only the mysteries relative to its progress among both Jews and Gentiles. 6. Lastly, the Jews were addressed in parables, because as their wickedness and perverseness indisposed them to receive profit from his more plain discourses, Jesus Christ would not Vouchsafe to them a clearer knowledge of these events. To "have ears and hear not," is a proverbial expression, to describe men who are so wicked, and slothful, that they either do not attend to, or will not follow the clearest intimations and convictions of their duty. See instances of this expression in Jer. v. 21. and Ezek. xii. 2.2 To this remark we may add, with reference to the quotations from Isaiah vi. 9, 10. that it is common for God to speak, by his prophets, of events that would happen, in a manner as if he had enjoined them.3 actly correspond, that their meaning soon became plain and obvious to all. It is, moreover, particularly worthy of observation, that the moral instructions conveyed by the parables of the Gospel are of the most important nature, and essential to our duty and best interests. They do not serve merely to amuse the imagination, but to enlighten the understanding, and to purify the heart. They aim at no less an object than the happiness of mankind in a future and eternal state. The doctrines of the soul's immortality and a future judgment are the ground-work of our Lord's parables; and to illustrate and confirm these fundamental principles is their main and leading design. They all terminate in this point, and describe the awful scenes of eternity, and the interesting consequences of that decisive trial, in a language, though simple and unadorned, yet amazingly striking and impressive. But the fabulous representations of the heathen poets on this subject were more fitted to amuse than to instruct: they served rather to extinguish than revive the genuine sentiments of nature, and, consequently, to weaken the influence of this doctrine as a principle of virtuous conduct. There is, also, a pleasing variety in the parables of Jesus. V. Whoever attentively considers the character of our Sa-Some of them comprehend no dialogue, and scarcely any viour merely as a moral teacher and instructor of mankind, action, and are little more than a simple comparison between will clearly perceive his superiority to the most distinguished the subject to be investigated and something very well teachers of antiquity. Through the whole of his Gospel, he known. In others may be traced the outlines of a complete discovers a deep and thorough insight into human nature, drama. The obscurity which may be thought to lie in some and seems intimately acquainted with all the subtle malig- of them wholly arises from our not clearly understanding his nities and latent corruptions of the human heart, as well as character, or that of his audience, or the occasion on which with all the illusions and refinements of self-idolatry, and the he spoke; except where the subject itself rendered some windings and intricacies of self-deceit. How admirably the obscurity unavoidable. manner, in which he conveyed his instructions, was adapted to answer the end and design of them, we have already seen; we might, indeed, almost venture to appeal to his parables alone for the authenticity of our Lord's mission as a divine teacher: all of them, indeed, are distinguished by a dignity of sentiment, and a simplicity of expression, perfectly becoming the purity and excellence of that religion which he came to establish. The whole system of heathen mythology was the invention of the poets; a mere farrago of childish and romantic stories, chiefly calculated to amuse the vulgar. As the far greater part of their fables and allegories are founded on this fictitious history of the gods, so they were plainly subservient to the support of that system of idolatry and polytheism which the Gospel was designed to overthrow. If any secret meaning was conveyed under these allegorical representations (which seems, however, to be very doubtful), it was too refined and philosophical to be understood by the common people, whose religious knowledge and belief extended no farther than the literal sense of the words. The moral instruction, if any was intended, must be dug out of the rubbish of poetical images and superstitious conceits. And, as these were founded on a false system of the universe, and on unworthy sentiments of God, and his moral government, they could never contribute to the religious improvement of mankind either in knowledge or in practice. Let any man of true taste and judgment compare the abstruse allegories of Plato, or the monstrous fables of the Jewish Talmuds, with the parables of our Saviour, and he will be at no loss which to prefer; while, tired and disgusted with the one, he will be struck with admiration at the beauty, elegance, and propriety of the other. Further, the parables of Jesus far excel the fables of antiquity in clearness and perspicuity, which made them remarkably fit for the instruction of the ignorant and prejudiced, for whom they were originally designed. Our Saviour's images and allusions are not only taken from nature, but especially from those objects and occurrences which are most familiar to our observation and experience. It requires no laborious search, no stretch of imagination, to discover his meaning, in all cases where he intended instruction or reproof, as appears evident from the impressions immediately produced on the minds of his hearers, according to their different tempers and dispositions. Such of his parables, indeed, as predicted the nature and progress of the Gospel dispensation, and the opposition which it would meet from the malice of Satan and the folly of mankind, were purposely left to be explained by 4 Dr. Hales's New Analysis of Chronology, vol. ii. p. 773. 2 Grotius and Whitby on Matt. xiii. 10. Dr. Whitby has collected passages showing the proverbial use of having ears and hearing not, from Philo (Alleg. lib. ii. p. 72. D. and lib. iii. p. 850. E.), and from Demosthenes. (Orat. in Aristogeton, sect. 127.) See Bishop Lowth's note on Isa. vi. 10. Of this description, for instance, are the parables of the sower, of the tares, and of the labourers in the vineyard. VOL. I. 3 A Conciseness is another excellence of the parables of Christ. Scarce a single circumstance or expression can be taken away from any of them, without injuring the whole. They also comprehend the most extensive and important meaning in the shortest compass of narration; and afford at the same time the largest scope to the judgment and reflection of the reader. An extraordinary candour and charity likewise pervade all the parables of Jesus. He gives the most favourable representations of things. In the parable of the lost sheep, he supposes but one of a hundred to go astray; yet the good shepherd leaves the rest, to go in quest of this. In the parable of the ten virgins, he supposes the number of the wise to be equal to that of the foolish. In that of the prodigal, for one son that takes a riotous course, there is another that continued in his duty. In that of the ten talents, two are supposed to improve what is committed to them, for one that does not improve it. In the parable of the rich man and Lazarus, Abraham uses the term Son to the former, though in the place of punishment; and he is represented as still retaining kind regards to his brethren. A name is delicately withheld from the character that is blamable, while one is given to the good. An exact propriety and decorum is observed in all the parables of Christ, and every thing that is spoken is suited to the character of the person who speaks it. His parables surpass all others, in being so natural and probable, that they have the air of truth rather than of fiction. Generosity and decorum are so strongly manifested in the character of the compassionate Samaritan, that the Jewish lawyer, whose prejudices and passions would be all excited by the very name, could not withhold his approbation of it. There is also great candour and propriety in the selection and adjustment of the two characters. Had a Jew or a Samaritan been represented as assisting a fellow-countryman, or a Jew assisting a Samaritan, the story would have been less convincing and impressive. "In the parable of the murmuring labourers, the proprietor of the vineyard assembles the labourers in the evening all together to receive their wages, begins to pay those who were called at the latest hour, and proceeds gradually to the first invited. This circumstance with the greatest propriety introduces their complaint. It also discovers candour and integrity in the judge, in allowing them to be witnesses of his distribution, in attentively hearing their objections, and calmly pointing out how groundless and unreasonable they were. In the parable of the barren fig tree, the keeper of the vineyard is with great propriety and candour introduced as interceding earnestly for a further respite and trial to the tree, and enforcing his plea from weighty considerations." In what an amiable and proper light is the generous creditor in the parable represented, and with what natural simplicity! "Then the lord of that servant Law's Life of Christ, p. 325. note. was moved with compassion, and loosed him, and forgave him the debt." What ingenuous sorrow appears in the character of the prodigal! What natural affection, generosity, and forwardness to forgive, in the parent! Besides the regard paid by Jesus Christ to historical propriety in the incidental circumstances (which has been already noticed in p. 368.), it is a peculiar excellence of the parables of Christ, that the actors in them are not the inferior creatures, but men. He leads us sometimes to draw instruction from the inferior animals, and the process of things in the vegetable world, as well as nature in general. But men are the more proper actors in a scene, and speakers in a dialogue, formed for the instruction of mankind. Men add to the significance without diminishing the ease and familiarity of the narration. In the fables of Æsop, and of the Hindoos, as well as of the Jewish prophets, inferior creatures, and even vegetables, are introduced as actors. Another distinguishing character of our Lord's parables is, the frequent introduction of his own character into them, as the principal figure, and in views so various, important, and significant: for instance, the sower; the vine-dresser; the proprietor of an estate; the careful shepherd; the just master; the kind father; the splendid bridegroom; the potent nobleman; the heir of a kingdom; and the king upon his throne of glory judging the whole world of mankind. A striking contrast hence arises between the simplicity of the descriptions and dignity of the speaker. A further material circumstance which characterizes the parables of Christ is, that he spake them just as occasions were offered; in the ordinary course of his conversation and instruction; privately as well as publicly; to his own disciples; to the multitude; and to the Pharisees and chief rulers. An accidental question or unexpected event appears to have been the occasion of some of them. For instance, that of the good Samaritan, when he was asked, "Who is my neighbour?" that of the rich man, whose ground brought forth plentifully, when he was desired to determine a suit concerning an estate; that of the barren fig tree, when he was told of the Galilæans whom Pilate had massacred; that of a certain man who made a great supper, when he was present at a splendid entertainment; and those of the careful shepherd, the prodigal son, the unjust steward, and the inhuman rich Jew, when a great number of publicans and sinners, and of Pharisees and Scribes, happened to be present, and the latter murmured against him, and insulted him. No man, except Jesus, ever did speak in parables, unpremeditated, and on various occasions. No man is now capable of conveying instruction in like manner. No instructor can ever presume to be equal to him, nor so much as to imitate or resemble him. Again: the parables of our Lord were admirably adapted to the time when, the place in which, and the persons to whom, they were delivered; while they were also fitted for the general instruction of mankind in all ages. These compositions of Christ were likewise all original. Dr. Lightfoot and others have shown that Jesus often borrowed proverbs and phrases from the Jews. But an inspired teacher would not surely propose whole parables, that were in common use, for his own. Nor does it appear that any body used the parables of Christ before his time; for those which are alleged out of the Talmudical or other Jewish writers were all penned some ages after his birth. For instance, the parable of the householder and the labourers, which is extant in the Jerusalem Gemara, was written an age and a half at least after the destruction of the temple. It is more probable, therefore, that it was written in imitation of Christ, than borrowed from any ancient tradition. The same may be said of many others; as Matt. xviii. 17. out of the book of Musar; and of another parable like that, Matt. xxv. 1. of the ten virgins.3 If Jesus had borrowed whole parables, or discourses, it would scarcely have been remarked so often, that he spake as one who had authority, and not as the Scribes; nor would the extraordinary wisdom of his instructions have so much astonished his auditors. Further; the Scribes and Pharisees would have been glad to have exposed him, by proclaiming to the people that he was indebted to the Rabbis for what gained him the reputation of superior sagacity. This, also, would have been a plausible argument to have retorted upon him, when he opposed their traditions. To conclude, it is a singular excellency in the Gospe parables, that, though they were for the most part occasiona! and wisely adapted by our Saviour to the characters and circumstances of the persons to whom they were originally addressed, yet they contain most wholesome instructions and admonitions for all ages of the world, and for every future period of his church. They are at once excellently accom modated to the comprehensions of the vulgar, and capable of instructing and delighting the most learned and judicious. In short, all the parables of Christ "are beautiful; the truest delineation of human manners, embellished with all those graces which an unaffected lovely simplicity of diction is able to bestow,-graces beyond the reach of the most elaborate artifice of composition. But two of the number shine among the rest with unrivalled splendour; and we may safely challenge the genius of antiquity to produce, from all his stores of elegance and beauty, such specimens of pathetic unlaboured description, as the parables of the prodigal son and the good Samaritan." SECTION VI. ON SCRIPTURE PROVERBS. I. Nature of Proverbs.-Prevalence of this mode of instruc tion.-II. Different kinds of Proverbs.-III. The Proverbs occurring in the New Testament, how to be interpreted. I. THE inhabitants of Palestine, in common with other oriental nations, were much in the use of PROVERBS, or detached aphorisms; that is, concise and sententious common sayings, founded on a close observance of men and manners. This method of instruction is of very remote antiquity, and was adopted by those who, by genius and reflection, exercised in the school of experience, had accumulated a stock of knowledge, which they were desirous of reducing into the most compendious form, and comprising, in a few maxims, such observations as they apprehended to be most essential to human happiness. Proverbial expressions were peculiarly adapted to a rude state of society, and more likely to produce effect than any other: for they professed not to dispute, but to command, not to persuade, but to compel; they conducted men, not by circuitous argument, but led them immediately to the approbation and practice of integrity and virtue. That this kind of instruction, however, might not be altogether destitute of attraction, and lest it should disgust by an appearance of harshness and severity, the teachers of mankind added to their precepts the graces of harmony; and decorated them with metaphors, comparisons, allusions, and other embellishments of style. Proverbial instruction was a favourite style of composition among the Jews, which continued to the latest ages of their literature; and obtained among them the appellation of Mashalim, or parables, partly because it consisted of parables strictly so called (the nature of which has been discussed in the preceding section), and partly because it possessed uncommon force and authority over the minds of the auditors. The proverbs of the Old Testament are classed by Bishop Lowth among the didactic poetry of the Hebrews, of which many specimens are extant, particularly the book of Proverbs, composed by Solomon, of which an account is given in the subsequent part of this work. The royal sage has, in one of his proverbs, himself explained the principal excellences of this form of composition; exhibiting at once a complete definition of a proverb, and a very happy specimen of what he describes : Prov. xxv. 11. Apples of gold in a net-work of silver Is a word seasonably spoken. Thus intimating, that grave and profound sentiments should be set off by a smooth and well-turned phraseology; as the appearance of the most beautiful and exquisitely-coloured fruit, or the imitation of it, perhaps, in the most precious materials, is improved by the circumstance of its shining (as through a veil) through the reticulations of a silver vessel exquisitely carved. In the above-cited passage he further insinuates, that it is not merely a neat turn and polished dic Dr. Gray's Delineation of the Parables, pp. 19. 21. (Edinburgh, 1814, 8vo.) Monthly Review, O. S. vol. lvii. p. 196. Wakefield's Internal Evidences 1 See Wilkins's, or Sir W. Jones's Translation of the Fables of Veshnoo. of Christianity, p. 36. Simpson's Internal and Presumptive Evidences of Sarma. Christianity, pp. 403-422. 2 Matt. xx. 1-16. a Le Clerc on Matt. xx. 15. See Vol. II. pp. 215-247. tion by which proverbs must be recommended; but that truth | much they were in use among that people, and that they itself acquires additional beauty when partially discovered through the veil of elegant fiction and imagery. 1. The first excellence of a proverb is Brevity, without which it can retain neither its name nor its nature. The discriminating sentiment should be expressed in a few words, not exceeding ten or at most twelve words, otherwise it is no longer a proverb, but a declamation; and it should force itself upon the mind by a single effort, not by a tedious process. Accordingly, the language must be strong and condensed, rather omitting some circumstances which may appear necessary, than admitting any thing superfluous. Horace himself insists on this as one of the express rules of didactic poetry, and has assigned the reason on which it is founded: Short be the precept, which with ease is gained By docile minds, and faithfully retamed. Solomon expresses the same sentiment in his own parabolic manner: The words of the wise are like goads, Eccles. xii. 11. And like nails that are firmly fixed. That is, they instantaneously stimulate or affect the mind; they penetrate deeply and are firmly retained. Even the obscurity, which is generally attendant on excessive brevity, has its use; as it sharpens the understanding, keeps alive the attention, and exercises the genius by the labour of investigation, while no small gratification results from the acquisition of knowledge by our own efforts. 2. Another excellence, essential to a proverb, is Elegance; which is neither inconsistent with brevity, nor with some degree of obscurity. Elegance in this connection respects the sentiment, the imagery, and the diction; and those proverbs, which are the plainest, most obvious, and simple, or which contain nothing remarkable either in sentiment or style, are not to be considered as destitute of their peculiar elegance, if they possess only brevity, and that neat, compact form, and roundness of period, which alone are sufficient to constitute a proverb. Examples of this kind occur in the maxim of David, recorded in 1 Sam. xxiv. 13. and in that of Solomon, Prov. x. 12.3 II. Proverbs are divided into two classes, viz. 1. Entire SENTENCES; and, 2. Proverbial PHRASES, which by common usage are admitted into a sentence. 1. Examples of Entire PROVERBIAL SENTENCES occur in Gen. x. 9. and xxii. 14. 1 Sam. x. 12. and xxiv. 13. 2 Sam. v. 8. and xx. 18. Ezek. xvi. 44. and xviii. 2. Luke iv. 23. John iv. 37. and 2 Peter ii. 22.; in which passages the inspired writers expressly state the sentences to have passed into proverbs. 2. Examples of PROVERBIAL PHRASES, which, indeed, cannot be correctly termed proverbs, but which have acquired their form and use, are to be found in Deut. xxv. 4. 1 Kings xx. 11. 2 Chron. xxv. 9. Job vi. 5. xiv. 19. and xxviii. 18. Psal. xlii. 7. and lxii. 9. Of this description also is that beautiful and memorable sentence, THE FEAR OF THE LORD IS THE BEGINNING OF WISDOM, Psal. cxi. 10., which is repeated in Prov. i. 7. ix. 10. and in Job xxviii. 28. The book of Proverbs likewise contains very many similar sentences; from among which it may suffice to refer to Prov. i. 17. 32. iii. 12. vi. 6. 27. x. 5. 13. 19. 25. xi. 15. 22. 27. xii. 11. 15. xv. 2. 33. xvii. 1. 10. 19. 28. xix. 2. 24. xx. 4. 11. 14. 21. 25. xxii. 6. 13. xxv. 11. 16. 27. xxvi. 4. 10, 11. 14. 17. 28. xxvii. 6, 7, 8. 10. 14. 17. 22. xxviii. 21. So in the book of Ecclesiastes, ch. i. 15. 18. iv. 5. 12. v. 2. 6.8, 9, 10. vi. 9. vii. 17. ix. 4. 18. x. 1, 2, 8. 15. 19, 20. xi. 3. 4. 6, 7. xii. 12. And in the Prophets, Jer. xiii. 23. xxiii. 28. Ezek. vii. 5. Micah vii. 5, 6. Habak. ii. 6. Mal. ii. 10, &c. And likewise in the New Testament, as in Matt. v. 13-15. vi. 3. 21. 34. vii. 2. 5. 16. ix. 12. 16. x. 10. 22. 24. 26. xii. 34. xiii. 12. 57. xv. 14. xxiii. 24. xxiv. 28. Mark ix. 50. Luke ix. 62. xii. 48. xxiii. 31. Acts ix. 5. xx. 35. 1 Cor. v. 6. x. 12. xv. 33. 2 Cor. ix. 6, 7. 2 Thess. iii. 10. Tit. i. 15. III. The Proverbs occurring in the New Testament are to be explained, partly by the aid of similar passages from the Old Testament, and partly from the ancient writings of the Jews, especially from the Talmud; whence it appears how 1 "The brevity of this kind of composition," says an elegant critic of ancient times, "and the condensing of much thought into a small compass, renders it more sententious, more sage, and expressive: as in a small seed, the whole power of vegetation, which is to produce a tree, is contained. And if any writer should amplify the sentence, it would no longer be a proverb, but a declamation." DEMETRIUS PHALEREUS, Пlop. Epμnvas, were applied by Christ and his apostles, agreeably to common usage. The proverbs, contained in the Old and New Testaments, are collected and illustrated by Drusius, and Andreas Schottus; whose works are comprised in the ninth volume of the Critici Sacri, and also by Joachim Zehner, who has elucidated them by parallel passages from the fathers as well as from the heathen writers, in a treatise published at Leipsic in 1601. The proverbs which are found in the New Testament have been illustrated by Vorstius' and Viser, as well as by Lightfoot and Schoetgenius in their Hora Hebraicæ et Talmudice, and by Buxtorf in his Lexicon Chaldaicum Talmudicum et Rabbinicum; from which lastmentioned works Rosenmüller, Kuin el, Dr. Whitby, Dr. A. Clarke, and other commentators, both British and foreign, have derived their illustrations of the Jewish parables and proverbs. I. Synecdoche.-II. Irony.—III. Hyperbole.-IV. Paronomasia. BESIDES the figures already discussed, and the right understanding of which is of the greatest importance for ascer taining the sense of Scripture, Glassius, and other writers, who have treated expressly on the tropes and figures of the Sacred Writings, have enumerated a great variety of other figures which are to be found in them. As, however, many of these are merely rhetorical; and though they are admirably calculated to show how vastly superior the inspired volume is to all the productions of the human mind, for the beauty and sublimity of its compositions; yet as it would lead us into too wide a field of discussion, were we to introduce such figures at length, our attention must be directed to a few of those principal figures which have not been mentioned in the preceding pages. The most important of these figures, which remain to be noticed, are, 1. Synecdoche; 2. Irony; 3. the Hyperbole; and, 4. the Paronomasia. I. Synecdoche. A SYNECDOCHE is a trope in which, 1. The whole is put for a part; 2. A part is put for the whole; 3. A certain number for an uncertain one; 4. A general name for a particular one; and, 4. Special words for general ones. A very few examples will suffice to illustrate this figure. 1. The whole is sometimes put for a part. As, the world for the Roman empire, which is but a small though very remarkable part of the world, in Acts xxiv. 5. and Rev. iii. 10. The world for the earth, which is a part of it, 2 Pet. iii. 6. Rom. i. 8. 1 John v. 19. Thus the whole person is put for a part, as man for the soul, Luke xvi. 23. where the rich man Abraham, and Lazarus, are respectively put for their souls; man, for the body, John xix. 42. xx. 2. 13. with Luke xxiv. 3., in which passages Jesus is put for his dead body. Time for a part of time, as Dan. ii. 4. which simply means, we wish you a long life and reign. Gen. xvii. 19. where the words everlasting covenant denote while the Jewish polity subsists, that is, until Messiah come. (Gen. xlix. 10.)-See also Exod. xxi. 6. where the expression for ever means the year of jubilee. To this class of Synecdoche may be referred those instances, in which the plural number is sometimes put for the singular: as the mountains of Ararat (Gen. viii. 4.), which term might refer to the bi-topped forin of that mountainous range. The cities where Lot dwelt, Gen. xix. 29.; the sides of the house, Amos vi. 10.; the sides of the ship, Jonah i. 5.; the ass and foal, on which Jesus Christ was set, Matt. xxi. 7. compared with Zech. ix. 9.; the prophets, Mark i. 2. John vi. 45. Acts xiii. 40.; in all which places only one of those things or persons inentioned is to be understood. So, children is put for child, Gen. xxi. 7. ; so daughters and sons' daughters, Gen. xlvi. 7., when Jacob had but one daughter (verse 15.) and one granddaughter. (verse 17.) So the sons of Dan (verse 23.), when he had but one. So the cities of Gilead are mentioned in Judg. xii. 7.; whereas Jephthah was buried in one city in that region. In like manner, by the sons of Je hoiada is intended only Zechariah, 2 Chron. xxiv. 25. compared with verses 20. and 21.; and our Saviour speaks of himself in the plural number, John iii. 11. 2. Sometimes the part for the whole. Thus in Gen. i. 5. 8. 13. 19. 23. 31. the evening and morning, being the principal parts of the day, are put for the entire day. So the soul comprehends the entire man, Acts xxvii. 37. See similar expressions in Gen. xii. 5. xvii. 14. Exod. xii. 19. Lev. iv. 2. Psal. iii. 2. xi. Î. xxv. 13. Isa. Iviii. 5. Ezek. xviii. 4. Acts ii. 41, &c. ▲ Vorstius's Diatriba de Adagiis Novi Testamenti is printed in Crenius's Fasciculus Tertius Opusculorum quæ ad Historiam et Philologiam Sacram spectant. 18mo. Rotterdam, pp. 475-576.; and also in Fischer's second edition of Leusden, De Dilectis N. T. (8vo. Lipsia), pp. 168-252. Viser, Hermeneutica Sacra Novi Testamenti, part ii. sect. ix. cap. 2. pp. 132-150. |