glacial epoch, extended, as we have seen, over a period of 160,000 years. But as the glaciation was only on one hemisphere at a time, 80,000 years or so would represent the united length of the cold periods. In order to satisfy ourselves that this period is sufficiently long to account for all the amount of denudation effected during the glacial epoch, let us make some rough estimate of the probable rate at which the surface of the country would be ground down by the ice. Suppose the ice to grind off only one-tenth of an inch annually this would give upwards of 650 feet as the quantity of rock removed during the time. But But it is probable that it did not amount to one-fourth part of that quantity. Whether one-tenth of an inch per annum be an over-estimate or an under-estimate of the rate of denudation by the ice, it is perfectly evident that the period in question is sufficiently long, so far as denudation is concerned, to account for the phenomena of the glacial epoch.

But admitting that the period under consideration is sufficiently long to account for all the denudation which took place during the glacial epoch, we have yet to satisfy ourselves that it is also sufficiently remote to account for all the denudation which has taken place since the glacial epoch. Are the facts of geology consistent with the idea that the close of the glacial epoch does not date back beyond 80,000 years?

This question could be answered if we knew the present rate of subaërial denudation, for the present rate evidently does not differ greatly from that which has obtained since the close of the glacial epoch.

CHAPTER XX.

GEOLOGICAL TIME.- -METHOD OF MEASURING THE RATE OF

SUBAERIAL DENUDATION.

Rate of Subaërial Denudation a Measure of Time.-Rate determined from Sediment of the Mississippi.-Amount of Sediment carried down by the Mississippi; by the Ganges.-Professor Geikie on Modern Denudation.-Professor Geikie on the Amount of Sediment conveyed by European Rivers.-Rate at which the Surface of the Globe is being denuded.-Alfred Tylor on the Sediment of the Mississippi.-The Law which determines the Rate of Denudation. The Globe becoming less oblate.-Carrying Power of our River Systems the true Measure of Denudation.-Marine Denudation trifling in comparison to Subaërial.-Previous Methods of measuring Geological Time. -Circumstances which show the recent Date of the Glacial Epoch.— Professor Ramsay on Geological Time.

IT is almost self-evident that the rate of subaërial denudation must be equal to the rate at which the materials are carried off the land into the sea, but the rate at which the materials are carried off the land is measured by the rate at which sediment is carried down by our river systems. Consequently, in order to determine the present rate of subaërial denudation, we have only to ascertain the quantity of sediment annually carried down by the river systems.

Knowing the quantity of sediment transported by a river, say annually, and the area of its drainage, we have the means of determining the rate at which the surface of this area is being lowered by subaërial denudation. And if we know this in reference to a few of the great continental rivers draining immense areas in various latitudes, we could then ascertain with tolerable correctness the rate at which the surface of the globe is being lowered by subaërial denudation, and also the length of time which our present continents can remain above the sealevel. Explaining this to Professor Ramsay during the winter

of 1865, I learned from him that accurate measurements had been made of the amount of sediment annually carried down by the Mississippi River, full particulars of which investigations were to be found in the Proceedings of the American Association for the Advancement of Science for 1848. These proceedings contain a report by Messrs Brown and Dickeson, which unfortunately over-estimated the amount of sediment transported by the Mississippi by nearly four times what was afterwards found by Messrs Humphreys and Abbot to be the actual amount. From this estimate, I was led to the conclusion that if the Mississippi is a fair representative of rivers in general, our existing continents would not remain longer than one million and a half above the sea-level.* This was a conyears clusion so startling as to excite suspicion that there must have been some mistake in reference to Messrs. Brown and Dickeson's data. It showed beyond doubt, however, that the rate of subaërial denudation, when accurately determined by this method, would be found to be enormously greater than had been supposed. Shortly afterwards, on estimating the rate from the data furnished by Humphreys and Abbot, I found the rate of denudation to be about one foot in 6,000 years. Taking the mean elevation of all the land as ascertained by Humboldt to be 1,000 feet, the whole would therefore be carried down into the ocean by our river systems in about 6,000,000 of years if no elevation of the land took place.† The following are the data and mode of computation by which this conclusion was arrived at. It was found by Messrs. Humphreys and Abbot that the average amount of sediment held in suspension in the waters of the Mississippi is about 13 of the weight of the water, or 2 by bulk. The annual discharge of the river is 19,500,000,000,000 cubic feet of water. The quantity of sediment carried down into the Gulf of Mexico amounts to 6,724,000,000 cubic feet. But besides that which is held in suspension, the river pushes down into the sea about 750,000,000 cubic feet of earthy matter, making in all a total of 7,474,000,000 cubic feet Phil. Mag. for February, 1867. † Phil. Mag. for May, 1868.

transferred from the land to the sea annually. Where does this enormous mass of material come from? Unquestionably it comes from the ground drained by the Mississippi. The area drained by the river is 1,244,000 square miles. Now 7,474,000,000 cubic feet removed off 1,224,000 square miles of surface is equal to 1% of a foot off that surface per annum, or one foot in 4,566 years. The specific gravity of the sediment is taken at 1.9, that of rock is about 2.5; consequently the amount removed is equal to one foot of rock in about 6,000 years. The average height of the North American continent above the sea-level, according to Humboldt, is 748 feet; consequently, at the present rate of denudation, the whole area of drainage will be brought down to the sea-level in less than 4,500,000 years, if no elevation of the land takes place.

Referring to the above, Sir Charles Lyell makes the following appropriate remarks:-"There seems no danger of our overrating the mean rate of waste by selecting the Mississippi as our example, for that river drains a country equal to more than half the continent of Europe, extends through twenty degrees of latitude, and therefore through regions enjoying a great variety of climate, and some of its tributaries descend from mountains of great height. The Mississippi is also more likely to afford us a fair test of ordinary denudation, because, unlike the St. Lawrence and its tributaries, there are no great lakes in which the fluviatile sediment is thrown down and arrested on its way to the sea.

The rate of denudation of the area drained by the river Ganges is much greater than that of the Mississippi. The annual discharge of that river is 6,523,000,000,000 cubic feet of water. The sediment held in suspension is equal i by weight; area of drainage 432,480 square miles. This gives one foot of rock in 2,358 years as the amount removed.

Rough estimates have been made of the amount of sediment carried down by some eight or ten European rivers; and although those estimates cannot be depended upon as being * Student's "Elements of Geology," p. 91. Second Edition.

anything like perfectly accurate, still they show (what there is very little reason to doubt) that it is extremely probable that the European continent is being denuded about as rapidly as the American.

For a full account of all that is known on this subject I must refer to Professor Geikie's valuable memoir on Modern Denudation (Transactions of Geological Society of Glasgow, vol. iii.; also Jukes and Geikie's "Manual of Geology," chap. xxv.) It is mainly through the instrumentality of this luminous and exhaustive memoir that the method under consideration has gained such wide acceptance amongst geologists.

Professor Geikie finds that at the present rate of erosion the following is the number of years required by the undermentioned rivers to remove one foot of rock from the general surface of their basins. Professor Geikie thus shows that the rate of denudation, as determined from the amount of sediment carried down the Mississippi, is certainly not too high.

By means of subaërial agencies continents are being cut up into islands, the islands into smaller islands, and so on till the whole ultimately disappears.

No proper estimate has been made of the quantity of sediment carried down into the sea by our British rivers. But, from the principles just stated, we may infer that it must be as great in proportion to the area of drainage as that carried down by the Mississippi. For example, the river Tay, which drains a great portion of the central Highlands of Scotland, carries to the sea three times as much water in proportion to its area of drainage as is carried by the Mississippi. And any one who has seen this rapidly running river during a flood, red and turbid with sediment, will easily be convinced that the