Descriptive Notes. Asiatic Turkey contains only two towns (Smyrna and Damascus) above 100,000 inhabitants; eight between 100,000 and 50,000 (Kutaya, Brusa, Scutari, Kara Hissar, Konieh, Aleppo, Baghdad, Bassorah); twenty between 50,000 and 20,000; and twenty-two between 20,000 and 10,000.

ARMENIA.-Trebizond is an important fortified sea-port, and the natural entrepôt of the European trade with Armenia, North Persia, and Transcaucasia: it was here that Xenophon, with his ten thousand Greeks, reached the coast, on their memorable retreat after the battle of Cunaxa. Erzroum, the principal city of Turkish Armenia, has extensive trade with all the adjacent countries, and is a chief halting-station of caravans travelling from Teheran to Mecca. Kars, near the Russian frontier, taken by the Russians in 1855, after a gallant defence by the Turks. Van is a fortified city with a flourishing trade, and possesses some remarkable antiquities, which have been attributed to Semiramis. Betlis, with manufactures of cotton cloths celebrated for their bright red colour: near it the army of Solyman the Magnificent was defeated by the Persians in 1554.

ASIA MINOR.-Sivas has manufactures of coarse woollen and other fabrics, with a considerable transit trade. Kaisarieh, near Mt. Arjish, has iron mines, and is the commercial entrepôt for a large extent of country. Tokat, a considerable depôt for agricultural produce, has manufactures of silk and calico, and a copper refinery. Arab Gir, a thriving town on the route between Trebizond and Aleppo. Smyrna, the capital of Asiatic Turkey, and one of the largest and richest cities in the empire: its foreign trade is very extensive, especially with great Britain, Austria, France, and the United States: it is the rendezvous of merchants from all parts of the world, and the residence of consuls from most of the European States: its imports alone are valued at £4,000,000 annually: it claims to be the birthplace of Homer, occupies a distinguished place in the early history of Christianity, was the scene of the labours and martyrdom of Polycarp, and is the only one of the great ancient cities on the western coast of the peninsula which has survived to this day." Sinope, long famous for its commerce, continues to be the best port on the north coast of Asiatic Turkey: here, in November 1853, the Russian fleet, emerging from Sevastopol, attacked and destroyed a Turkish squadron, consisting of thirteen ships, lying at anchor in the roadstead, when four thousand Turks were cruelly butchered. Kutaya, a populous city, sometimes regarded as the capital of Anatolia, has numerous mosques, public baths, and khans, and a large trade in goats' hair, wool, and agricultural produce. Angora, long famous for the fine silken hair obtained from a species of goat, and used in the manufacture of shawls. Scutari, a large and populous town on the Bosporus, opposite Constantinople, of which it is usually considered a suburb: it will be remembered as the seat of the British military hospital during the Crimean war. Brusa, once the capital of Bithynia, is one of the most flourishing emporiums of commerce in Asiatic Turkey. Manissa, famous for its loadstones (hence called magnets), and for the victory gained by the two Scipios over Antiochus the Great, which secured to the Romans the empire of the East. Aidin

*The other six cities to which St John addressed epistles were-Pergamos, now Bergamo, 48 m. N. of Smyrna; Thyatira, now Ak-Hissar, 60 m. N.E.; Philadelphia, now Allah-Shehr, 85 m. E.; Sardis, now the miserable village Sart, 50 m. E.; Laodicea, now the poor village Eski-hissar, 120 m. S. E.; and Ephesus, now represented by heaps of ruins near Ayasaluk, 40 m. S. of Smyrna.

is an important commercial city, and next in rank to Smyrna, with which it is now connected by a railway. Adana has a trade in wool, cotton, corn, wine, and fruit. Tarsus, a celebrated city, and the ancient capital of Cilicia, was the birthplace of St Paul, and many other illustrious men. Konieh (Iconium) was visited by St Paul in his missionary travels: in the middle ages it was one of the greatest cities in Asia Minor, and is yet a place of considerable trade.

SYRIA AND PALESTINE.-Aleppo, the principal city in North Syria, rose to importance on the destruction of Palmyra, and became the great emporium of trade between Europe and the East. It has long been celebrated for its silk and cotton manufactures, and for its productive gardens. Iskenderun or Scanderoon has the best harbour on the Syrian coast. Antioch (Turk. Antaki), once the proud capital of Syria, and second to no city in Asia, was one of the earliest strongholds of the Christian faith here the disciples of our Lord were first called Christians, though now it does not contain a single Christian church. Tripoli (anc. Tripolis), at the foot of a spur of Mount Lebanon, is surrounded by luxuriant gardens and remains of the architecture of the middle ages: the principal exports are soap and sponges. Acre, Akka, or St Jean d'Acre, the ancient Ptolemais, near the foot of Mount Carmel, is a place of great natural strength, and has always been regarded as the key of Palestine: it is celebrated for the memorable sieges it has sustained, but was reduced to a heap of ruins by the British fleet in 1840. Beirout is the port of Damascus and the Lebanon, and has more commercial activity than any other Syrian port: valuable mines of coal and iron have been found in the vicinity. Saida (anc. Sidon), probably the most ancient, and for a long time the most powerful, city of Phoenicia, till eclipsed by its colony Tyre: it was long famous for its manufactures of glass, a substance which it is said was first invented here. Sur, or Tyre, soon eclipsed its parent Sidon, and became one of the greatest and most famous cities of the ancient world as early as the 11th century before the advent of Christ the Tyrians had become famous for their skill in various manufactures and arts: it was successively besieged by Shalmaneser and Nebuchadnezzar, and in B.C. 322 it was taken and sacked by Alexander the Great: the wars of the Crusades completed its ruin, and its site is now occupied by a miserable village, which exports a little tobacco, cotton, charcoal, and fuel. The downfall and permanent desolation of Tyre is one of the most memorable accomplishments of prophecy which the annals of the world exhibit. Kisarieh (Cæsarea), memorable in the early history of Christianity as the place where the Gentiles were first received into the Christian Church. En Nasirah, the ancient Nazareth, where the parents of Jesus resided, and where He lived till the commencement of His ministry: it is a small, well-built town, containing about 3000 inhabitants. Sebustieh, the ancient Samaria, founded by Omri, king of Israel, B.C. 924, was the capital of the ten tribes till they were carried away by Shalmaneser, B.C. 721 it is now a mere village surrounded by gardens and plantations. Nablous, the ancient Shechem and Neapolis, the capital of the Kingdom of Israel before Samaria, and the chief seat of the Samaritan worship till the nation embraced Christianity: the inhabitants are engaged in the manufacture of soap and cotton fabrics. Gaza, a thriving town on the S. W. coast, with manufactures of soap and cotton fabrics, and a principal entrepôt for the caravans passing between Egypt and Syria: it was one of the five chief cities of the Philistines; the scene of some of Samson's famous exploits, and of his death; and near it Philip baptised the eunuch of Ethiopia. Jaffa (anc. Joppa), the port of Jerusalem, has trade in cloth,

corn, fruits, and coral: Jaffa figures in the history of the Crusades, and was the scene of the faithless massacre of its garrison by Napoleon I. in 1799: it is also celebrated as the place where Jonah embarked for Tarshish, and where Peter had his deeply significant vision. Damascus, the principal city in Syria, in a beautiful plain at the eastern foot of Anti-Lebanon: it is regarded by many as the most ancient city in the world, and it is certainly one of the earliest that attained to consequence: at its immense bazaars may always be seen the representatives of all civilised nations, and above 200 merchants are here permanently settled: foreign trade is now carried on by the fine new macadamised road to Beirout, opened in 1863, which is 75 miles in length. Hamah, the Hamath of Scripture, one of the most pleasant towns of Syria, carrying on a brisk trade with the Arabs of the desert, and having manufactures of silk, cotton, and woollen stuffs. Hems, or Homs, was celebrated for its great temple of the sun it was also the scene of a decisive battle between Aurelian and the famous Queen Zenobia, A.D. 272. Palmyra, the Tadmor of Scripture, built by King Solomon in an oasis in the Syrian Desert, midway between the Euphrates and the Mediterranean, was pre-eminently a city of merchants, who sold to the western world the products of India and Arabia: a few mud cottages mark the spot where "the city of palms" once stood; but the surrounding ruins are the admiration of all travellers through the desert: the most remarkable of these remains consist of portions of a temple of the sun, which had 390 Corinthian columns of white marble, 60 of which are still entire. Jerusalem, by far the most interesting and renowned city in the world, having been the site of the most important events recorded in the annals of history: the date of its origin is wholly unknown, but it existed in the time of Abraham, when Melchizedek was its sovereign: it was the capital of the Israelitish empire under David and Solomon, when it became the permanent centre of the true religion: after the division of the empire under Rehoboam it remained the capital of the kingdom of Judah till the time of the captivity, B.C. 588: here the Saviour taught, here He wrought miracles, and here He suffered: after having been the scene of horrors unparalleled in the history of the human race, Jerusalem was abandoned to the Romans, who levelled it to the ground, A.D. 70: it was rebuilt by Hadrian, A.D. 136; captured by the Persians in 614; by the Saracens, under Omar, in 637; by the Crusaders in 1099; recaptured by Saladin in 1187; and has ever since remained under the galling yoke of the Turks: the principal buildings are the Mosque of Omar, on the site of the Temple of Jehovah, and the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is erroneously supposed to mark the sacred spot where the crucifixion, burial, and resurrection of our Lord took place. Hebron stands on a height, 18 m. S. of Jerusalem: it is perhaps the oldest city in the world that is still inhabited, having been built "seven years before Zoan in Egypt," which was itself a town of venerable antiquity in the days of Moses: with the exception of Jerusalem and Bethlehem, perhaps no place on earth is more hallowed by high and sacred associations. Beit-Lahm, formerly Bethlehem or Ephrath, possesses everlasting renown from having been the birthplace of our Saviour, as it had previously been of David, His great ancestor according to the flesh.

MESOPOTAMIA.-Baghdad, formerly capital of the Saracen Caliphate, stands on both sides of the Tigris: it is a place of great trade, especially with Aleppo and Damascus it was long the great emporium of all the surrounding countries, but its commerce has declined since Persia began to receive European goods by Trebizond and the Persian Gulf. Bassorah, the great emporium of the Turkish Empire for Eastern produce: ships of

400 tons can come up to the city. Hillah, a small town on the Euphrates, 60 miles S. of Baghdad, among the ruins of ancient Babylon, the first theatre of empire, and one of the most magnificent and famous cities of the ancient world. Diyarbekr, or Diarbekr—here are some copper-works and manufactures of cotton and silk. Harran, the Haran of Scripture, where Abraham and his family resided for a time on their journey towards Canaan. Orfah, the famous Ur of the Chaldees, the birthplace of Abraham, Nahor, and Lot. Mosul, a considerable town with a brisk and flourishing trade, but chiefly interesting on account of its proximity to the ruins of ancient Nineveh, recently explored with such brilliant results by M. Botta and by our indefatigable countryman, Layard: their excavations have brought to light the sculptured remains of several immense palaces of the ancient kings of Nineveh, most of which are deposited in the British Museum. Arbel or Erbil, the ancient Arbela, where Alexander the Great obtained his final and decisive victory over Darius, B.C. 331. ARABISTAN.-Tor or Tur, a small town on the caravan route from Egypt to Mecca, where the water is better than at any other place on the Red Sea. A few miles inland is Jebel-at-Túr, the Mount Horeb of the Old Testament. Akaba, or "the descent," a small town, built for the protection of the pilgrim caravans from Cairo to Mecca. Near it, in ancient times, stood Ezion-Geber, famous as the port where Solomon and Jehoshaphat built fleets to carry on a commerce with Ophir. Half-way between Akaba and the Dead Sea are the famous ruins of Petra, the ancient. capital of Idumæa, surrounded by almost inaccessible precipices, and entered by a single narrow gorge. It was a city of great extent and magnificence, and commanded a large share of the traffic of the East. Some fine ruins of its public buildings still remain. Mecca, capital of the Hedjaz, and the most celebrated city of Arabia, is famous as having been the birthplace of the arch-impostor Mohammed (A.D. 571), and the cradle of the Mussulman religion. Here stands the Beitulah or "house of God," the grand centre of the Mohammedan world, containing the Kaaba or sanctuary, an oblong massive structure of rough stone, alleged to have been built by Abraham, and the object of their deepest veneration. Mohammedans only are allowed to enter Mecca, and all persons of that faith are required to make a pilgrimage hither at least once in their lives. Jiddah, the port of Mecca, is the principal commercial entrepôt of W. Arabia. Medina, a celebrated city, 245 miles N. of Mecca, was the seat of Mohammed's empire : hither he fled from Mecca in A.D. 622, and that year, termed the Hegira or "Flight," has ever since formed the great era in all parts of the Mohammedan world. Medina contains the Prophet's tomb. Sana is a flourishing town, and carries on a great trade in coffee with Persia, India, and Turkey. Mocha, a fortified seaport, chiefly celebrated for its coffee, the finest in the world: about 10,000 tons of coffee are exported annually, besides considerable quantities of dates, gums, senna, balm, ivory, and gold-dust.

Capes.-Injeh, the northmost point; Baba, the westmost point; Krio, the most south-westerly point; Anamur, the most southerly point of Asia Minor.

Islands.-Marmora, in the Sea of Marmora; Lesbos, Scio, Samos, Nicaria, Patmos, Cos, Rhodes-all off the west coast of Anatolia ; Cyprus, in the Mediterranean, south-east of Asia Minor.

Many of these islands are highly celebrated: Samos was one of the chief centres of Ionian civilisation, literature, and art; but it is chiefly

celebrated as having been the birthplace of Pythagoras. Patmos will be ever memorable as the scene of the Apostle John's banishment, and as the place where the volume of inspiration was completed. Rhodes, one of the largest islands in the whole Archipelago, is well watered and fertile, and celebrated from the remotest antiquity as a seat of commerce, navigation, literature, and the arts; but now reduced to a state of abject poverty by the devastations of war and the tyranny and rapacity of its Turkish rulers: its capital, Rhodes, with a population of 15,000, was in ancient times famous for its huge brazen statue of Apollo, and in modern times it is noted as one of the last retreats of the knights of St John of Jerusalem, who held it from 1310 to 1522. Cyprus, a large and celebrated island of the Mediterranean, south of Cilicia, area 4500 sq. miles, population 200,000, of whom about two-thirds are Christians, and one-third Mussulmans; the surface, in many parts sterile and uninhabited, is traversed from east to west by two mountain-ranges, which attain their maximum height in Mount Santa Croce (Olympus), 8000 feet above the level of the sea: capital Lefkosia, near the centre, with 16,000 inhabitants.

Seas, Straits, and Gulfs.-Black Sea, N. of Asia Minor; Bosporus, Sea of Marmora, and the Hellespont, between European and Asiatic Turkey; Gulfs of Adramyti, Smyrna, Scala Nova, and Cos, W. of Anatolia; Gulfs of Makri, Adalia, and Scanderoon, S. of Asia Minor; the Levant, W. of Syria; the Persian Gulf, S. E. of Mesopotamia. Mountain System.-(See under " 'Asia," par. 9.)

River System and Towns.-(See after "Biluchistan.")

Lakes.-Van, in the S. of Armenia; Egerdir, in the S.E. of Anatolia; Tuz-gul, N. of Konieh; Bahr-el-Merdj, near Damascus ; Bahr-el-Huleh (Waters of Merom), near the sources of the Jordan; Lake of Tiberias, E. of Galilee; Dead Sea (Asphaltites), S. E. of Palestine.

Most of these lakes are salt, and have no outlet. Lake Van, the largest, has an area of 1200 sq. miles; elevation above the sea, 5467 feet; its waters are salt; it contains many islands, and the only fishery in it is that of a kind of sardines. The Lake of Tiberias, or Sea of Galilee, is the most interesting sheet of water in the world, from having been so often navigated by the Saviour and the fishermen of Galilee whom He chose to be His Apostles: here He walked on the billows, and here He stilled the winds and the waves; while on its western shore stood most of the towns which He frequented during His ministry-as Tiberias, Bethsaida, Chorazin, and Capernaum: the lake is traversed by the Jordan from N. to S.; the waters are fresh, and teem with fish; and it has now been ascertained that its surface is 653 feet below the level of the Mediterranean. The Dead Sea or Lake Asphaltites-area 360 sq. miles-is also very remarkable as being the saltest body of water known, with the exception of Tuz-Gul in Asia Minor; and as occupying the spot where once stood the guilty cities of the plain, Sodom, Gomorrha, Admah, and Zeboim : the waters are so intensely salt that no living creature can live in them, and so buoyant that men bathing in them find themselves floated like cork: as its surface is 1292 feet below the level of the ocean, it is obvious that, even before the destruction of Sodom, the Jordan could not have found its way to the Red Sea, unless indeed that catastrophe was accompanied by a general change of level over the entire country: the probability, therefore, is that there was a smaller lake here previously.