when it comes as punishment.

Education is not essen

tial to this effect, any more than it is essential to our avoiding the pains of hunger, cold, or fatigue.

Those that demur to the existence of a special faculty, different from all the other recognized constituents of mind-Feeling, Will, or Intellect-are not to be held as declaring that Conscience is entirely a matter of education; for, without any education at all, man may be, to all intents and purposes, moral. What is meant by the derivative theory of Conscience is, that everything that it includes is traceable to some one or other of the leading facts of our nature; first of all to Will or Volition, motived by pain and pleasure, and next to the Social and Sympathetic impulses. The co-operation of these factors supplies an impetus to right conduct that is nearly all-powerful, wherever there is the external machinery of law and authority. Education, as a third factor, plays a part, no doubt, but we may over-rate as well as underrate its influence. I should not be far out in saying that seventy-five per cent. of the average moral faculty is the rough and ready response of the Will to the constituted penalties and rewards of society.

At the risk of embroiling the theory of Education in a controversy that would seem to be alien to it, I conceive it to be necessary to make these broad statements as a prelude to inquiring what are the emotional and volitional associations that constitute the made-up or acquired portion of our moral nature. That education is a considerable factor is shown by the difference between the children that are neglected and those that are carefully tended; a difference, however, that means a good Ideal more than education.

DISINTERESTED REPUGNANCE TO WRONG. 59

When the terrors of the law are once thoroughly understood, it does not seem as if any education could add to the mind's own original repugnance to incur them; and, on the other hand, when something in the nature of reward is held forth to encourage certain kinds of conduct, we do not need special instruction to prompt us to secure it. There is, indeed, one obvious weakness that often nullifies the operation of these motives, namely, the giving way to some present and pressing solicitation; a weakness that education might do something for, but rarely does. The instructor that could reform a victim to this frailty, would effect something much wider than is properly included in moral improvement.

Going in search of some distinct lines of emotional association that enhance the original impulses coincident with moral duty, I think I may cite the growth of an immediate, independent, and disinterested repugnance to what is uniformly denounced and punished as being wrong. This is a state or disposition of mind forming part of a well-developed conscience; it may grow up spontaneously under the experience of social authority, and it may be aided by inculcation; it may, however, also fail to show itself. It is the parallel of the muchquoted love of money for itself; but is not so facile in its growth. For one thing, the mind must not treat authority as an enemy to be counted with, and to be obeyed only when we cannot do better. There must be a cordial acquiescence in the social system as working by penalties; and this needs the concurrence of good impulses with reflection on the evils that mankind are rescued from. It is by being favourably situated in the world, as well as by being sympathetically

disposed, that we contract this repugnance to immoral acts in themselves, without reference to the penalties that are behind; and thus perform our duties when out of sight, not in the narrowness of the letter, but in the fulness of the spirit. It would take some consideration to show how the schoolmaster might co-operate in furthering this special growth.

In Education there has to be encountered at every turn the play of Motives. Now, the theory of Motives is the theory of Sensation, Emotion and Will; in other words, it is the psychology of the Sensitive and the Active Powers.

PLAY OF MOTIVES:-THE SENSES.

The pleasures, the pains and the privations of the Senses are the earliest and the most unfailing, if not also the strongest, of motives. Besides their bearings on self-preservation, they are a principal standing dish in life's feast.

It is when the Senses are looked at on the side of feeling, or as pleasure and pain, that the defectiveness of the current classification into five is most evident. For, although, in the point of view of knowledge or intellect, the five senses are the really important approaches to the mind, yet, in the view of feeling or pleasure and pain, the omission of the varied organic susceptibility leaves a wide gap in the handling of the subject. Some of our very strongest pleasures and pains grow out of the region of organic life-Digestion, Circulation, Respiration, Muscular and Nervous integrity or derangement.

MUSCLES.-NERVES.

61

In exerting influence over human beings this department of sensibility is a first resource. It can be counted on with more certainty than perhaps any other. Indeed, almost all the punishments of a purely physical kind fall within the domain of the organic sensations. What is it that makes punishment formidable but its threatening the very vitals of the system? It is the lower degree of what, in a higher degree, takes away life.

For example, the Muscular System is the seat of a mass of sensibility, pleasurable and painful: the pleasures of healthy exercise, the pains of privation of exercise, and the pains of extreme fatigue. In early life, when all the muscles, as well as the senses, are fresh, the muscular organs are very largely connected both with enjoyment and with suffering. To accord full scope to the activity of the fresh organs is a gratification that may take the form of a rich reward; to refuse this scope is the infliction of misery; to compel exercise beyond the limits of the powers is still greater misery. Our penal discipline adopts the two forms of pain: in the milder treatment of the young, the irksomeness of restraint; in the severer methods with the full-grown, the torture of fatigue.

Again, the Nervous System is subject to organic depression; and certain of our pains are due to this cause. The well-known state denominated 'Tedium' is nervous uneasiness; and is caused by undue exercise of any portion of the nervous system. In its extreme forms, it is intolerable wretchedness. It is the suffering caused by penal impositions or tasks, by confinement, and by monotony of all kinds. The acute sufferings of the nervous system, as growing out of natural causes, are

represented by neuralgic pains. It is in graduated artificial inflictions, operating directly on the nerves by means of electricity, that we may look for the physical punishments of the future, that are to displace floggings and muscular torture.

The interests of Nourishment, as against privation of food, are necessarily bound up with a large volume of enjoyment and suffering. Starvation, deficiency and inferiority of food, are connected with depression and misery of the severest kind, inspiring the dread that most effectually stimulates human beings to work, to beg, or to steal. The obverse condition of a rich and abundant diet is in itself an almost sufficient basis of enjoyment. The play of motives between those extremes enables us to put forth an extensive sway over human conduct.

An instructive distinction may be made between Privation and Hunger; likewise between their opposites. Privation is the positive deficiency of nourishing material in the blood; Hunger is the craving of the stomach at its usual times of being supplied, and is a local sensibility, perhaps very acute, but not marked by the profound wretchedness of inanition. There may be plenty of material to go on with, although we are suffering from stomachic hunger. Punishing, for once, by the loss of a meal out of the three or four in the day is unimportant as regards the general vigour, yet very telling as a motive. Absolutely to diminish the available nutriment of the system is a measure of great severity; to inflict a passing hunger is not the same thing.

When we unite the acute pleasures of the palate with stomachic relish and the exhilaration of abundance of food-material in a healthy frame, we count up a large