is immeasurable; we have no reason, however, to conclude that it is eternal, any more than we have to infer that it is infinite. But when we compare the age of the material universe with its magnitude, we must not take the age of one of its members (say, our globe) and compare it with the size of the universe. Neither must we compare the age of all the presently existing systems of worlds with the magnitude of the universe; but we must compare the past history of the universe as it stretches back into the immensity of bygone time, with the presently existing universe as it stretches out on all sides into limitless space. For worlds precede worlds in time as worlds lie beyond worlds in space. Each world, each individual, each atom is evidently working out a final purpose, according to a plan prearranged and predetermined by the Divine Mind from all eternity. And each world, like each individual, when it serves the end for which it was called into existence, disappears to make room for others. This is the grand conception of the universe which naturally impresses itself on every thoughtful mind that has not got into confusion about those things called in science the Laws of Nature.*

But the geologist does not pass back from world to world as they stand related to each other in the order of succession in time, as the astronomer passes from world to world as they stand related to each other in the order of coexistence in space. The researches of the geologist, moreover, are not only confined to one world, but it is only a portion of the history of that one world that can come under his observation. The oldest of existing formations, so far as is yet known, the Laurentian Gneiss, is made up of the waste of previously existing rocks, and it, again, has probably been derived from the degradation of rocks belonging to some still older period. Regarding what succeeds these old Laurentian rocks geology tells us much; but of the formations that preceded, we know nothing whatever. For anything that geology shows to the contrary, the time which may have elapsed from the solidifying of the earth's Phil. Mag. for July, 1872, p. 1.

crust to the deposition of the Laurentian strata-an absolute blank-may have been as great as the time that has since intervened.

Probable Date of the Eocene and Miocene Periods.—If we take into consideration the limit which physical science assigns to the age of our globe, and the rapid rate at which, as we have seen, denudation takes place, it becomes evident that the enormous period of 3 millions of years comprehended in the foregoing tables must stretch far back into the Tertiary age. Supposing that the mean rate of denudation during that period was not greater than the present rate of denudation, still we should have no less than 500 feet of rock worn off the face of the country and carried into the sea during these 3 millions of years. This fact shows how totally different the appearance and configuration of the country in all probability was at the commencement of this period from what it is at the present day. If it be correct that the glacial epoch resulted from the causes which we have already discussed, those tables ought to aid us in our endeavour to ascertain how much of the Tertiary period may be comprehended within these 3 millions of years.

We have already seen (Chapter XVIII.) that there is evidence of a glacial condition of climate at two different periods during the Tertiary age, namely, about the middle of the Miocene and Eocene periods respectively. As has already been shown, the more severe a glacial epoch is, the more marked ought to be the character of its warm inter-glacial periods; the greater the extension of the ice during the cold periods of a glacial epoch the further should that ice disappear in arctic regions during the corresponding warm periods. Thus the severity of a glacial epoch may in this case be indirectly inferred from the character of the warm periods and the extent to which the ice may have disappeared from arctic regions. Judged by this test, we have every reason to believe that the Miocene glacial epoch was one of extreme severity.

The Eocene conglomerate, devoid of all organic remains, and containing numerous enormous ice-transported blocks, is, as we

J

have seen, immediately associated with nummulitic strata charged with fossils characteristic of a warm climate. Referring to this Sir Charles Lyell says, "To imagine icebergs carrying such huge fragments of stone in so southern a latitude, and at a period immediately preceded and followed by the signs of a warm climate, is one of the most perplexing enigmas which the geologist has yet been called upon to solve."

It is perfectly true that, according to the generally received theories of the cause of a glacial climate the whole is a perplexing enigma, but if we adopt the Secular theory of change of climate, every difficulty disappears. According to this theory the very fact of the conglomerate being formed at a period immediately preceded and succeeded by warm conditions of climate, is of itself strong presumptive evidence of the conglomerate being a glacial formation. But this is not all, the very highness of the temperature of the preceding and succeeding periods bears testimony to the severity of the intervening glacial period. Despite the deficiency of direct evidence regarding the character of the Miocene and Eocene glacial periods, we are not warranted, for reasons which have been stated in Chapter XVII., to conclude that these periods were less severe than the one which happened in Quaternary times. Judging from indirect evidence, we have some grounds for concluding that the Miocene glacial epoch at least was even more severe and protracted than our recent glacial epoch.

By referring to Table I., or the accompanying diagram, it will be seen that prior to the period which I have assigned as that of the glacial epoch, there are two periods when the eccentricity almost attained its superior limit. The first period occurred 2,500,000 years ago, when it reached 0.0721, and the second period 850,000 years ago, when it attained a still higher value, viz., 0.0747, being within 0.0028 of the superior limit. To the first of these periods I am disposed to assign the glacial epoch of Eocene times, and to the second that of the Miocene With the view of determining the character of these

age.

"Principles," p. 210. Eleventh Edition.

periods Tables II. and III. have been computed. They give the eccentricity and longitude of perihelion at intervals of 10,000 years. It will be seen from Table II. that the Eocene period extends from about 2,620,000 to about 2,460,000 years ago; and from Table III. it will be gathered that the Miocene period lasted from about 980,000 to about 720,000 years ago.

In order to find whether the eccentricity attained a higher value about 850,000 years ago than 0.0747, I computed the values for one or two periods immediately before and after that period, and satisfied myself that the value stated was indeed the highest, as will be seen from the subjoined table :

:

How totally different must have been the condition of the earth's climate at that period from what it is at present! Taking the mean distance of the sun to be 91,400,000 miles, his present distance at mid-winter is 89,864,480 miles; but at the period in question, when the winter solstice was in perihelion, his distance at mid-winter would be no less than 98,224,289 miles. But this is not all; our winters are at present shorter than our summers by 7-8 days, but at that period they would be longer than the summers by 34-7 days.

At present the difference between the perihelion and aphelion distance of the sun amounts to only 3,069,580 miles, but at the period under consideration it would amount to no less than 13,648,579 miles!

CHAPTER XXII.

A METHOD OF DETERMINING THE MEAN THICKNESS OF THE

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS OF THE GLOBE.

Prevailing Methols defective.--Maximum Thickness of British Rocks.--Threo Elements in the Question.--Professor Huxley on the Rate of Deposition.Thickness of Sedimentary Rocks enormously over-estimated.--Observed Thickness no Measure of moan Thickness.-Deposition of Sediment principally along Su-margin.--Mistaken Inference regarding the Absence of a Forination.-Iumense Antiquity of existing Oceans.

VARIOUS attempts have been made to measure the positive length of geological periods. Some geologists have sought to determine, roughly, the age of the stratified rocks by calcula tions based upon their probable thickness and the rate at which they may have been deposited. This method, however, is worthless, because the rates which have been adopted are purely. arbitrary. One geologist will take the rate of deposit at a foot in a hundred years, while another will assume it to be a foot in a thousand or perhaps ten thousand years; and, for any reasons that have been assigned, the one rate is just as likely to be correct as the other: for if we examine what is taking place in the ocean bed at the present day, we shall find in some places a foot of sediment laid down in a year, while in other places a foot may not be deposited in a thousand years. The stratified rocks were evidently formed at all possible rates. When we speak of the rate of their formation, we must of course refer to the mean rate; and it is perfectly true that if we knew the thickness of these rocks and the mean rate at which they were deposited, we should have a ready means of determining their positive age. But there appears to be nearly as great uncertainty regarding the thickness of the sedimentary rocks as