were included in the interval through which the scrutiny extended, the knowledge of the length of the year so acquired would be proportionally more exact. Besides those notices of the sun which offered exact indications of the seasons, other more indefinite natural occurrences were used; as the arrival of the swallow (xɛdɩdwv) and the kite (iktív). The birds, in Aristophanes' play of that name, mention it as one of their offices to mark the seasons; Hesiod similarly notices the cry of the crane as an indication of the departure of winter." Among the Greeks the seasons were at first only summer and winter (épos and xequív), the latter including all the rainy and cold portion of the year. The winter was then subdivided into the xequív and čap (winter proper and spring), and the summer, less definitely, into Оéрos and ỏлúρа (summer and autumn). Tacitus says that the Germans knew neither the blessings nor the name of autumn, “Autumni perinde nomen ac bona ignorantur." Yet harvest, herbst, is certainly an old German word." In the same period in which the sun goes through his cycle of positions, the stars also go through a cycle of appearances belonging to them; and these appearances were perhaps employed at as early a period as those of the sun, in determining the exact length of the year. Many of the groups of fixed stars are readily recognized, as exhibiting always the same configuration; and particular bright stars are singled out as objects of attention. These are observed, at particular seasons, to appear in the west after sunset; but it is noted that when they do this, they are found nearer and nearer to the sun every successive evening, and at last disappear in his light. It is observed also, that at a certain interval after this, they rise visibly before the dawn of day renders the stars invisible; and after they are seen to do this, they rise every day at a longer interval before the sun. The risings and settings of the stars under these circumstances, or under others which are easily recognized, were, in countries where the sky is usually clear, employed at an early period to mark the seasons of the year. Eschylus' makes Prometheus mention this among the benefits of which he, the teacher of arts to the earliest race of men, was the communicator. Thus, for instance, the rising of the Pleiades in the evening was a mark of the approach of winter. The rising of the waters of the Nile in Egypt coincided with the heliacal rising of Sirius, which star the Egyptians called Sothis. Even without any artificial measure of time or position, it was not difficult to carry observations of this kind to such a degree of accuracy as to learn from them the number of days which compose the year; and to fix the precise season from the appearance of the stars. A knowledge concerning the stars appears to have been first cultivated with the last-mentioned view, and makes its first appearance in literature with this for its object. Thus Hesiod directs the husbandman when to reap by the rising, and when to plough by the setting of the Pleiades. In like manner Sirius,10 Arcturus," the Hyades and Orion," are noticed. ▪ Ideler (Chronol. i. 242) says that this rising of the Pleiades took place at a time of the year which corresponds to our 11th May, and the setting to the 20th October; but this does not agree with the forty days of their being "concealed," which, from the context, must mean, I conceive, the interval between their setting and rising. Pliny, however, says, "Vergiliarum exortu æstas incipit, occasu hiems; semestri spatio intra se messes vindemiasque et omnium maturitatem complexa." (H. N. xviii. 69.) The autumn of the Greeks, dupa, was earlier than our autumn, for Homer calls Sirius dorp wpivós, which rose at the end of July. These methods were employed to a late period, because the Greek months, being lunar, did not correspond to the seasons. Tables of such motions were called Tapaτhyμara.—Ideler, Hist. Untersuchungen, p. 209. 13 By such means it was determined that the year consisted, at least, nearly, of 365 days. The Egyptians, as we learn from Herodotus," claimed the honor of this discovery. The priests informed him, he says, "that the Egyptians were the first men who discovered the year, dividing it into twelve equal parts; and this they asserted that they discovered from the stars." Each of these parts or months consisted of 30 days, and they added 5 days more at the end of the year," and thus the circle of the seasons come round." It seems, also, that the Jews, at an early period, had a similar reckoning of time, for the Deluge which continued 150 days (Gen. vii. 24), is stated to have lasted from the 17th day of the second month (Gen. vii. 11) to the 17th day of the seventh month (Gen. viii. 4), that is, 5 months of 30 days. A year thus settled as a period of a certain number of days is called a Civil Year. It is one of the earliest discoverable institutions of States possessing any germ of civilization; and one of the earliest portions of human systematic knowledge is the discovery of the length of the civil year, so that it should agree with the natural year, or year of the seasons. Sect. 3.-Correction of the Civil Year. (Julian Calendar.) In reality, by such a mode of reckoning as we have described, the circle of the seasons would not come round exactly. The real length of the year is very nearly 365 days and a quarter. If a year of 365 days were used, in four years the year would begin a day too soon, when considered with reference to the sun and stars; and in 60 years it would begin 15 days too soon: a quantity perceptible to the loosest degree of attention. The civil year would be found not to coincide with the year of the seasons; the beginning of the former would take place at different periods of the latter; it would wander into various seasons, instead of remaining fixed to the same season; the term year, and any number of years, would become ambiguous: some correction, at least some comparison, would be requisite. We do not know by whom the insufficiency of the year of 365 days was first discovered; we find this knowledge diffused among all civilized nations, and various artifices used in making the correction. The method which we employ, and which consists in reckoning an addi 13 Ib. ii. 4. 14 Syncellus (Chronographia, p. 128) says that according to the legend, it was King Aseth who first added the 5 additional days to 860, for the year, in the eighteenth century, B. C. tional day at the end of February every fourth or leap year, is an example of the principle of intercalation, by which the correction was most commonly made. Methods of intercalation for the same purpose were found to exist in the new world. The Mexicans added 13 days at the end of every 52 years. The method of the Greeks was more complex (by means of the octaeteris or cycle of 8 years); but it had the additional object of accommodating itself to the motions of the moon, and therefore must be treated of hereafter. The Egyptians, on the other hand, knowingly permitted their civil year to wander, at least so far as their religious observances were concerned. "They do not wish," says Geminus,15 "the same sacrifices of the gods to be made perpetually at the same time of the year, but that they should go through all the seasons, so that the same feast may happen in summer and winter, in spring and autumn." The period in which any festival would thus pass through all the seasons of the year is 1461 years; for 1460 years of 365 days are equal to 1461 years of 365 days. This period of 1461 years is called the Sothic Period, from Sothis, the name of the Dog-star, by which their fixed year was determined; and for the same reason it is called the Canicular Period.16 Other nations did not regulate their civil year by intercalation at short intervals, but rectified it by a reform when this became necessary. The Persians are said to have added a month of 30 days every 120 years. The Roman calendar, at first very rude in its structure, was reformed by Numa, and was directed to be kept in order by the perpetual interposition of the augurs. This, however, was, from various causes, not properly done; and the consequence was, that the reckoning fell into utter disorder, in which state it was found by Julius Cæsar, when he became dictator. By the advice of Sosigenes, he adopted the mode of intercalation of one day in 4 years, which we still retain; and in order to correct the derangement which had already been produced, he added 90 days to a year of the usual length, which thus became what was called the year of confusion. The Julian Calendar, thus reformed, came into use, January 1, B. C. 45. Sect. 4.-Attempts at the Fixation of the Month. THE circle of changes through which the moon passes in about thirty days, is marked, in the earliest stages of language, by a word which implies the space of time which one such circle occupies; just 15 Uranol. p. 83. 16 Censorinus de Die Natali, c. 18. as the circle of changes of the seasons defigned by THE WIFE year The lunar chang ages are indeed, more serious u the sense and strict & more careless person than the 1: The moon. When the sun #usent, is almost the scue matura open wins as our Loira auc we look at her with a far more trang and agree i za we bestow on any caber celestial cepect. Her changes of fon anc place are definite and striking to all era: they are mineured, and the duration of their eye is so short as to require no effort of memory to embrace it. Hence it appears to be more easy, and I earler sage of civilization more common to comt time by moms that by years The words by which this period of time is des guated in various Our wore guages, seem to refer us to the early imoy of ang nage month is ocupected with the word man, and a similar connector æ The Greek wore noticeable in the other branches of the Temonie uy in like manner is related to má via tongi un the common word for the moon, is found in Homer wri that signification. The Latin word meners is probably connected with the same group. The mouth is not any exact number of days, being more than 24 and less than 33 The latter number was first tried for me more readily select numbers possessing some distinction of regularny, A very few minus of existed for a long period in manṛ Gonutries. 30 days, however, would suffice to derange the agreement between the days of the months and the moon's appearance A inte further tria would show that monits of 2 and 30 days alarmnery, wout pre serve, for a considerable period, tik agreement. The Greeks adopted this extender, and it consequence, considered the days of their month as representing the changes of the moon: the last day of the mouth was called fog, nad réa, *the vid and new," as belonging to both the wating and the reappearing moon:** and their * Cucers derives the word from the vert measure; cue mense spata coufand other etymologists, wit similar viewe, connect the CLT TERBE LOH LEVEL E WIL WIL Gue above-mentioned words with the Hebrew manch, w measure Suat & derivUTIDE WINE Dare some Bugs Arsible word dimanach is connected. with that of anma, de,, zodived above: but 2 we are to attempt to ascend to E earbest condition of hugtagt, we must conceive it probable that met word ve a name for a most conspirtons visitde objet, five moon, before they would have s verb denoting the very abstract and general potion, is mecbure. 28 Aruns says of the moon, in a passage quoted by Geminne, pl BS: 'Ala & Ekhobes Ende repeckávovos petwrê Ειση, πιστά μέρος περιτέλλεται όμως As still her shifung visage changing turns, By her we count the monthly round of morna. |